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 "title": "COLD-PCR",
 "updated": "2026-10-15",
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 "excerpt": "COLD-PCR, short for co-amplification at lower denaturation temperature-PCR, is a modified polymerase chain reaction that enriches minority mutant alleles for detection, introduced in 2008 and used mainly in cancer mutation testing.",
 "snippet": "COLD-PCR, short for co-amplification at lower denaturation temperature-PCR, is a modified polymerase chain reaction that enriches minority mutant alleles for detection, introduced in 2008 and used mainly in cancer mutation testing.",
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 "markdown": "# COLD-PCR\n\nCOLD-PCR (co-amplification at lower denaturation temperature-PCR) is a modified polymerase chain reaction that selectively enriches minority alleles from mixtures of wild-type and mutation-containing sequences, irrespective of mutation type or position within the amplicon (the DNA fragment copied by PCR).<sup>[1](https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1708)</sup> It does not itself produce a diagnostic readout; it produces an enriched amplicon that is then analyzed by a downstream method such as [Sanger sequencing](https://www.edgepedia.org/sanger-sequencing), pyrosequencing, high-resolution melting, or next-generation sequencing (NGS).<sup>[1](https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1708)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3111913/)</sup> The method addresses a practical problem in molecular diagnostics: low-abundance tumor mutations, for example in plasma DNA, are often below the detection limit of routine assays, and replacing conventional PCR with COLD-PCR improved the sensitivity of a range of detection methods by up to 100-fold.<sup>[1](https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1708)</sup>\n\n| Key fact | Detail |\n| --- | --- |\n| Full name | Co-amplification at lower denaturation temperature-PCR<sup>[1](https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1708)</sup> |\n| Output | Enriched amplicon, not a diagnostic readout; paired with sequencing, melting, or genotyping assays<sup>[1](https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1708)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3111913/)</sup> |\n| Enrichment | 3- to 10-fold (full), 10- to 100-fold (fast, Tm-reducing mutations only), up to 100-fold (E-ice-COLD-PCR)<sup>[3](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[4](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22312-x)</sup> |\n| Critical temperature | \\( T_{\\mathrm{c}} \\), typically 1 °C below the amplicon melting temperature, controlled to within ±0.2 °C<sup>[3](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)</sup> |\n| Detection limit with NGS | ~0.04% mutation abundance versus ~1–2% without enrichment<sup>[5](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22194627/)</sup> |\n| Introduced | Jin Li and colleagues, Nature Medicine, 2008<sup>[1](https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1708)</sup> |\n\n## How it works\n\nThe method exploits a thermodynamic difference between homoduplexes and heteroduplexes. During PCR, mutant and wild-type alleles cross-hybridize at an intermediate annealing temperature, forming heteroduplexes that carry a mismatch at the mutation site. Heteroduplexes melt at lower temperatures than homoduplexes in almost all cases, so denaturing at a critical denaturation temperature (\\( T_{\\mathrm{c}} \\)) selectively melts the mismatch-containing molecules while wild-type homoduplexes remain double-stranded and amplify inefficiently.<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3111913/)</sup> Each cycle therefore amplifies mutant-bearing templates preferentially, and the enrichment compounds over the run. Because mismatch heteroduplexes denature earlier than fully matched duplexes, a lower denaturation temperature performs a selective amplification of mutant alleles.<sup>[6](https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC2928436)</sup>\n\n## How it is done\n\nFull COLD-PCR uses a five-step cycle: a standard denaturation step; a hybridization step (about 70 °C for 2–8 min) that allows mutant/wild-type heteroduplex formation; a critical denaturation step at the defined \\( T_{\\mathrm{c}} \\) (for example 86.5 °C); primer annealing (about 55 °C); and extension at 72 °C.<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3111913/)</sup>\n\nFast COLD-PCR omits the hybridization step and runs a three-step protocol of denaturation, primer annealing, and extension. Denaturing at the \\( T_{\\mathrm{c}} \\) preferentially enriches Tm-reducing variants, such as G:C>A:T or G:C>T:A mutations, over wild-type sequences rather than amplifying mutant molecules exclusively.<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3111913/)</sup> This suits targets where most clinically relevant mutations reduce the melting temperature: more than 90% of KRAS codon 12 and 13 mutations are Tm-reducing changes, including G:C to A:T transitions (G12D, G12S, G13D) and G:C to T:A transversions (G12V, G12C), with the remaining common ones being G:C to C:G transversions (G12R and G12A).<sup>[7](https://bmcclinpathol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6890-10-6)</sup>\n\nDetermining Tc. The \\( T_{\\mathrm{c}} \\) is set empirically, typically 1 °C below the experimentally derived amplicon melting temperature. [Melting curve analysis](https://www.edgepedia.org/melting-curve-analysis) (0.2 °C/s, ramping 65–98 °C) after conventional PCR with LCGreen+ dye on a SmartCycler II identifies the \\( T_{\\mathrm{m}} \\); alternatively, step-wise testing of denaturation temperatures (~95 °C, Tm, Tm−0.5 °C, Tm−1.0 °C, and Tm−1.5 °C) using DNA diluted 1:10 mutant:wild-type finds the temperature that gives strong enrichment.<sup>[3](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3111913/)</sup> Because the \\( T_{\\mathrm{c}} \\) must be controlled precisely, to within ±0.2 °C, a thermocycler with high temperature precision is required.<sup>[3](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)</sup>\n\n## Origin\n\nCOLD-PCR was introduced by Jin Li and colleagues in a 2008 [Nature Medicine](https://www.edgepedia.org/nature-medicine) paper, \"Replacing PCR with COLD-PCR enriches variant DNA sequences and redefines the sensitivity of genetic testing\".<sup>[1](https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1708)</sup> The original paper reported sensitivity improvements of up to 100-fold across Sanger sequencing, pyrosequencing, MALDI-TOF, dHPLC, RFLP, and TaqMan assays.<sup>[1](https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1708)</sup> It identified novel p53/KRAS/EGFR mutations in heterogeneous cancer samples that were missed by all existing methods.<sup>[1](https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1708)</sup>\n\n## Variants\n\n**Full COLD-PCR** enriches all possible mutations along the sequence, but enrichment is generally modest (3- to 10-fold) and the intermediate hybridization step adds several minutes per cycle.<sup>[3](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)</sup>\n\n**Fast COLD-PCR** gives 10- to 100-fold enrichment and is robust and time-efficient, but is limited to Tm-reducing mutations.<sup>[3](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)</sup>\n\n**Ice-COLD-PCR** uses a non-amplifying wild-type reference sequence that is mixed with the sample amplicons, so heteroduplexes form for all mutation types, including Tm-increasing and Tm-equivalent changes. It yielded about 13-fold enrichment for Tm-increasing and Tm-equivalent mutations and about 15-fold for Tm-reducing mutations at 3% initial abundance, versus about 5- to 8-fold for full COLD-PCR, and can raise mutant abundance above 50% relative to wild type.<sup>[3](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)</sup> Its \\( T_{\\mathrm{c}} \\) is set 1 °C below the \\( T_{\\mathrm{m}} \\) of the reference-sequence/amplicon duplex, determined by mixing, denaturing at 98 °C for 30 s, hybridizing at 70 °C for 30 s, and running melting curve analysis.<sup>[3](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)</sup>\n\n**E-ice-COLD-PCR** enriched mutant ESR1 alleles up to 100-fold, enabling detection of mutations present at only 0.01% in the initial sample; the smallest dilution tested was 0.005%, one mutant among 20,000 molecules.<sup>[4](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22312-x)</sup>\n\n**TT-COLD-PCR** (temperature-tolerant COLD-PCR) relaxes the stringency on \\( T_{\\mathrm{c}} \\) and allows sequences with different \\( T_{\\mathrm{c}} \\) values to be amplified using a single thermocycling program, addressing the per-locus optimization requirement in multiplexed panels.<sup>[8](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0051362)</sup>\n\n## Applications\n\nThe main applications are in oncology mutation testing. COLD-PCR combined with [high-resolution melting analysis](https://www.edgepedia.org/high-resolution-melting-analysis) improves the limit of detection of KRAS and BRAF mutations in colorectal cancer.<sup>[6](https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC2928436)</sup> Fast COLD-PCR is well suited to KRAS codon 12/13 analysis because most of those mutations are Tm-reducing G:C to A:T changes.<sup>[7](https://bmcclinpathol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6890-10-6)</sup> Applied before targeted resequencing, it has been used on TP53, KRAS, IDH1, and EGFR regions in diluted cell-line DNA and in lung adenocarcinoma and colorectal cancer samples.<sup>[5](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22194627/)</sup> E-ice-COLD-PCR has been applied to monitoring ESR1 mutations in circulating cell-free DNA of breast cancer patients.<sup>[4](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22312-x)</sup> Downstream, the readout method sets the final limit: Sanger sequencing of ice-COLD-PCR amplicons identified a 1% mutant, while pyrosequencing of the same amplicons identified a 0.1% mutant mixture, a 10-fold advantage from the sequencing methodology.<sup>[3](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)</sup>\n\n## Limitations and alternatives\n\n**Per-locus optimization.** Each amplicon needs its own empirically determined \\( T_{\\mathrm{c}} \\), controlled to ±0.2 °C on a high-precision thermocycler, which complicates multiplexing; TT-COLD-PCR relaxes this constraint but is a separate format.<sup>[3](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[8](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0051362)</sup>\n\n**Mutation-class bias.** Fast COLD-PCR enriches only Tm-reducing mutations, so Tm-neutral or Tm-increasing variants require full or ice-COLD-PCR formats.<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3111913/)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[3](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)</sup>\n\n**Artifact enrichment.** Any artifacts or contamination within the specimen may be enriched by the reaction; formalin-fixed paraffin-embedding can damage DNA and, in principle, lead to false positives.<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3111913/)</sup> The method works best with small amplicons, which is compatible with degraded or FFPE DNA.<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3111913/)</sup>\n\n**Comparison with NGS and ddPCR.** Routine NGS has a lower limit of detection of roughly 0.5–1% mutant allele fraction, below which false positives arise from polymerase mis-incorporations; this noise is independent of sequencing depth, so adding reads does not improve the limit.<sup>[9](https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/13/3143)</sup> COLD-PCR pre-enrichment raises mutations above this noise floor, which is how the ~0.04% detection limit is reached.<sup>[5](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22194627/)</sup> For ESR1 mutations in cfDNA, validated NGS and ddPCR assays can detect allelic frequencies well below 5%, with reported detection limits of 0.01%–0.1% for NGS and 0.01%–0.07% for dPCR.<sup>[4](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22312-x)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[11](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13499828/)</sup> A 2018 study evaluated COLD-PCR against microarray and ddPCR for mutation calling from liquid biopsies in metastatic colorectal cancer patients.<sup>[10](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0009898118306235)</sup>\n\n## References\n\n1. [Jin Li and colleagues (2008). Replacing PCR with COLD-PCR enriches variant DNA sequences and redefines the sensitivity of genetic testing. Nature Medicine.](https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1708)\n2. [COLD-PCR: improving the sensitivity of molecular diagnostics assays](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3111913/)\n3. [Ice-COLD-PCR enables rapid amplification and robust enrichment for low-abundance unknown DNA mutations](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3017621/)\n4. [High-sensitivity assay for monitoring ESR1 mutations in circulating cell-free DNA of breast cancer patients receiving endocrine therapy | Scientific Reports](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22312-x)\n5. [COLD-PCR enrichment of rare cancer mutations prior to targeted amplicon resequencing](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22194627/)\n6. [The use of COLD-PCR and high-resolution melting analysis improves the limit of detection of KRAS and BRAF mutations in colorectal cancer](https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC2928436)\n7. [COLD-PCR enhanced melting curve analysis improves diagnostic accuracy for KRAS mutations in colorectal carcinoma (BMC Clinical Pathology)](https://bmcclinpathol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6890-10-6)\n8. [Single-Tube, Highly Parallel Mutation Enrichment in Cancer Gene Panels by Use of Temperature-Tolerant COLD-PCR (PLOS One)](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0051362)\n9. [Pre-PCR Mutation-Enrichment Methods for Liquid Biopsy Applications (Cancers, 2022)](https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/13/3143)\n10. [Evaluation of three advanced methodologies, COLD-PCR, microarray and ddPCR, for identifying the mutational status by liquid biopsies in metastatic colorectal cancer patients (Clinica Chimica Acta)](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0009898118306235)\n11. [pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13499828/)\n\n---\n*Topic: Encyclopedia › Life and health › Human health and medicine › Clinical assessment and procedures › Laboratory assays and specimen processing*\n\n*Initially written Sep 29, 2026 · Edited: Oct 15, 2026*\n\n*Copyright 2026 EdgeChat AI, a subsidiary of Biostate AI.*\n\nLicense: Edgepedia Community License 1.0, https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license\n",
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 "speakable": "COLD-PCR, short for co-amplification at lower denaturation temperature-PCR, is a modified polymerase chain reaction that enriches minority mutant alleles for detection, introduced in 2008 and used mainly in cancer mutation testing."
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