{ "id": "epyyazqd7b", "slug": "in-vitro-transcription-and-translation", "title": "In vitro transcription and translation", "updated": "2026-10-15", "topic_path": [ { "id": "life", "label": "Life and health", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/topics/life" }, { "id": "life.biology", "label": "Biological foundations", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/topics/life.biology" }, { "id": "life.biology.biochemistry", "label": "Biochemistry and metabolism", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/topics/life.biology.biochemistry" }, { "id": "life.biology.biochemistry.practice", "label": "Biochemistry field and methods", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/topics/life.biology.biochemistry.practice" }, { "id": "life.biology.biochemistry.practice.methods", "label": "Biochemical methods and techniques", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/topics/life.biology.biochemistry.practice.methods" } ], "geo": [ { "id": "geo.nongeo.t1946.life.biology.biochemistry.practice.methods", "label": "Non-geographic · 1946 to 2000: Biochemical methods and techniques", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/geo/geo.nongeo.t1946.life.biology.biochemistry.practice.methods", "path": [ { "id": "geo.nongeo", "label": "Non-geographic", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/geo/geo.nongeo" }, { "id": "geo.nongeo.t1946", "label": "Non-geographic · 1946 to 2000", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/geo/geo.nongeo.t1946" }, { "id": "geo.nongeo.t1946.life", "label": "Life and health", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/geo/geo.nongeo.t1946.life" }, { "id": "geo.nongeo.t1946.life.biology", "label": "Biological foundations", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/geo/geo.nongeo.t1946.life.biology" }, { "id": "geo.nongeo.t1946.life.biology.biochemistry", "label": "Biochemistry and metabolism", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/geo/geo.nongeo.t1946.life.biology.biochemistry" }, { "id": "geo.nongeo.t1946.life.biology.biochemistry.practice", "label": "Biochemistry field and methods", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/geo/geo.nongeo.t1946.life.biology.biochemistry.practice" }, { "id": "geo.nongeo.t1946.life.biology.biochemistry.practice.methods", "label": "Biochemical methods and techniques", "api_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/api/v1/geo/geo.nongeo.t1946.life.biology.biochemistry.practice.methods" } ] } ], "excerpt": "In vitro transcription and translation, also called cell-free protein synthesis, is a bench method that synthesizes proteins outside living cells from a DNA or RNA template.", "snippet": "In vitro transcription and translation, also called cell-free protein synthesis, is a bench method that synthesizes proteins outside living cells from a DNA or RNA template.", "node": "life.biology.biochemistry.practice.methods", "markdown": "# In vitro transcription and translation\n\nIn vitro transcription and translation (IVTT), also called cell-free gene expression, cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS), or TX-TL, is a bench biology method that synthesizes a protein outside living cells from a DNA or RNA template combined with a cell extract or a reconstituted translation system. The extract supplies the transcription and translation machinery, so the reaction produces a defined protein in hours without cell transformation, and the product can often be assayed directly in the same tube.[1](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11719329/) • [2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6481089/)\n\n| Key fact | Detail |\n|---|---|\n| Other names | Cell-free gene expression (CFE), cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS), TX-TL[1](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11719329/) |\n| Typical batch yields | 0.05–0.5 mg/mL in commercial E. coli systems; up to 4 mg/mL in high-performing batch reactions[3](https://www.neb.com/en/-/media/nebus/files/manuals/manuale5360.pdf) • [1](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11719329/) |\n| Incubation | 1.5–4 h at 37 °C for routine batch reactions; semicontinuous formats run for days[4](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40259-020-00417-y) • [3](https://www.neb.com/en/-/media/nebus/files/manuals/manuale5360.pdf) |\n| Template | Plasmid, linear PCR product, or mRNA; circular DNA usually gives higher yields[3](https://www.neb.com/en/-/media/nebus/files/manuals/manuale5360.pdf) |\n| Cost | Roughly $0.15–0.57 per µL for crude-extract reactions versus $0.99/µL for commercial PURE kits; in-house E. coli TX-TL costs $0.11 per 10 µL reaction[5](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/8/6/675) • [6](https://www.jove.com/t/50762/protocols-for-implementing-an-escherichia-coli-based-tx-tl-cell-free) |\n| Main platforms | E. coli S30/T7 extract, rabbit reticulocyte lysate, wheat germ extract, CHO and insect-cell lysates, and the reconstituted PURE system[7](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12463565/) • [2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6481089/) |\n\n## How it works\n\nA functional reaction needs four ingredient classes: a DNA or RNA template, transcription machinery such as [T7 RNA polymerase](https://www.edgepedia.org/t7-rna-polymerase) or endogenous [RNA polymerase](https://www.edgepedia.org/rna-polymerase), the full translation apparatus (ribosomes, tRNAs, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, and initiation, elongation, and release factors), and an energy-regeneration system that maintains ATP and GTP levels, typically based on phosphoenolpyruvate, creatine phosphate, 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), or maltodextrin.[7](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12463565/) In coupled reactions, messenger RNA made by the polymerase is translated by ribosomes in the same mixture, so DNA can be used directly without a separate mRNA preparation step.[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6481089/)\n\nThe energy source matters because phosphorylated compounds release inorganic phosphate, which lowers the magnesium ion concentration and halts protein synthesis; 3-PGA is the best energy source reported to date, reaching 2.3 mg/mL in E. coli systems.[8](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9996726/) In the endogenous E. coli TX-TL protocol, 3-PGA was chosen because it gave superior protein yields compared with creatine phosphate and phosphoenolpyruvate.[6](https://www.jove.com/t/50762/protocols-for-implementing-an-escherichia-coli-based-tx-tl-cell-free)\n\n## How it is done\n\nThe practitioner first designs the template. For E. coli systems the DNA must carry a start codon, a stop codon, a T7 promoter 20–100 nucleotides upstream, a ribosome binding site about 6–8 nucleotides upstream of the start, and preferably a T7 terminator; a starting input is 250 ng of DNA per 50 µL reaction, with an optimal range of 25–1000 ng.[3](https://www.neb.com/en/-/media/nebus/files/manuals/manuale5360.pdf) Circular plasmid usually outperforms linear PCR products, and a DNA exonuclease inhibitor such as GamS can stabilize linear DNA to near plasmid-level yields.[3](https://www.neb.com/en/-/media/nebus/files/manuals/manuale5360.pdf) Some commercial S30 extracts contain nuclease activity that prevents the use of linear templates altogether.[9](https://www.promega.com/-/media/files/resources/protocols/technical-manuals/0/s30-t7-high-yield-protein-expression-system-protocol.pdf?rev=33cab40ef0d3491daf593a78d2b0b243&sc_lang=en)\n\nNext the extract is prepared or purchased. A rapid protocol processes bacterial cell mass into a functional S30-T7 extract in under one hour using basic equipment.[10](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0165137) The reaction is then assembled; a typical TX-TL mix contains 8.9–9.9 mg/mL extract protein, 4.5–10.5 mM Mg-glutamate, 40–160 mM K-glutamate, 30 mM 3-PGA, NTPs, amino acids, and 2% PEG-8000, in a format of 75% buffer/extract and 25% DNA solution.[6](https://www.jove.com/t/50762/protocols-for-implementing-an-escherichia-coli-based-tx-tl-cell-free) Reactions are incubated at 37 °C for 2–4 hours with shaking, and the product is detected by reporter activity, gel band, or functional assay; in PURExpress, all protein components except ribosomes are His-tagged, so a protein of interest can be synthesized and purified within about 5 hours by ultrafiltration and nickel resin treatment.[3](https://www.neb.com/en/-/media/nebus/files/manuals/manuale5360.pdf) • [11](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4211082/)\n\n## Origin\n\nIn 1961, [Marshall W. Nirenberg](https://www.edgepedia.org/marshall-w-nirenberg) and J. [Heinrich Matthaei](https://www.edgepedia.org/heinrich-matthaei) reported mRNA-dependent polypeptide synthesis in an E. coli extract, showing that added template RNA drives amino acid incorporation and that the synthetic polynucleotide polyuridylic acid directs the synthesis of poly-L-phenylalanine.[12](https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.47.10.1588) • [13](https://njc.rockefeller.edu/pdf3/NirenbergMatthaeiPNAS1961.pdf) Their system required ribosomes, a 105,000 × g supernatant, ATP, and an ATP-generating system, and was inhibited by puromycin, chloramphenicol, and RNase.[13](https://njc.rockefeller.edu/pdf3/NirenbergMatthaeiPNAS1961.pdf) This work enabled the deciphering of the genetic code.[14](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8141837/)\n\nSubsequent publications introduced the main formats still in use: Bryan E. Roberts and [Bruce M. Paterson](https://www.edgepedia.org/bruce-m-paterson) described batch in vitro translation with commercial wheat germ extract in 1973 in the [Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences](https://www.edgepedia.org/proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences);[15](https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.70.8.2330) Hugh R. B. Pelham and [Richard J. Jackson](https://www.edgepedia.org/richard-j-jackson) described an efficient mRNA-dependent rabbit reticulocyte lysate system in 1976 in the European Journal of Biochemistry;[16](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-1033.1976.tb10656.x) Alexander S. Spirin and colleagues introduced the continuous-exchange cell-free (CECF) method in 1988 in Science, allowing reactions to run for tens of hours;[17](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3055301) Debra E. Nevin and Julie M. Pratt described a coupled system for exclusive synthesis from the T7 promoter in 1991 in FEBS Letters;[18](https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-5793%2891%2981297-l) Kairat Madin and colleagues reported a tritin-free wheat embryo system in 2000 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences;[19](https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.2.559) Yoshihiro Shimizu and colleagues reconstituted translation from purified components, the PURE system, in 2001 in Nature Biotechnology;[20](https://doi.org/10.1038/90802) Takanori Kigawa and colleagues published a highly productive E. coli extract preparation in 2004 in the Journal of Structural and Functional Genomics;[21](https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jsfg.0000029204.57846.7d) and Andreas K. Brödel, Andrei Sonnabend, and Stefan Kubick reported CHO-cell-extract expression in 2013 in Biotechnology and Bioengineering.[22](https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.25013)\n\n## Variants\n\n**E. coli S30/T7.** Crude bacterial extract with T7 RNA polymerase produces up to hundreds of micrograms of protein per milliliter within an hour from T7-promoter DNA; typical yields reach tens of micrograms per 50 µL reaction.[9](https://www.promega.com/-/media/files/resources/protocols/technical-manuals/0/s30-t7-high-yield-protein-expression-system-protocol.pdf?rev=33cab40ef0d3491daf593a78d2b0b243&sc_lang=en) It folds proteins post-translationally, shows tight codon preference, and performs no post-translational modification.[14](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8141837/)\n\n**Rabbit reticulocyte lysate and wheat germ.** [Rabbit](https://www.edgepedia.org/rabbit) reticulocyte extract supports protein microarrays, ribosome and mRNA display, and in vitro compartmentalization.[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6481089/) Neither platform contains translationally active endogenous microsomes, and reticulocyte lysate typically requires exogenous canine pancreatic microsomes; wheat germ does not offer glycosylation or solubilization of complex membrane proteins.[4](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40259-020-00417-y) The tritin-washed wheat embryo system removes a plant ribosome-inactivating defense protein, and published comparisons report productivity per milliliter of 6 mg for E. coli extract, microgram order for rabbit reticulocyte lysate, and 9.7 mg for wheat embryo.[19](https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.2.559) • [14](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8141837/)\n\n**PURE.** The reconstituted system comprises T7 RNA polymerase, the E. coli ribosome, tRNAs, and 31 translation factors including the 20 aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases plus initiation, elongation, and release factors.[23](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-80827-8) Commercially sold as two mixes (Solution A with tRNAs, amino acids, and rNTPs; Solution B with ribosomes, polymerase, factors, and energy-regeneration enzymes), it has minimal protease and nuclease contamination, and each component's concentration can be adjusted.[11](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4211082/) • [24](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10521753/) \"Delta\" versions omitting ribosomes or release factors suit ribosome-function assays, unnatural amino acid incorporation, and ribosome display.[11](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4211082/)\n\n**Other lysates.** Insect-cell and CHO lysates extend the platform toward eukaryotic processing,[7](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12463565/) and a Streptomyces TX-TL protocol reaches up to 266 µg/mL and supports one-pot biosynthesis of metabolic pathways such as melanin and haem.[25](https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstreams/2534ce61-d36a-4e91-9279-0ae65ff06e83/download)\n\n## Applications\n\nCoupled CFPS is used for high-throughput functional genomics, most often with E. coli, wheat germ, and rabbit reticulocyte extracts, and for display technologies that link genes to their protein products.[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6481089/) Because there is no cell-viability constraint and additives such as chaperones, detergents, and rare tRNAs can be supplied directly, the method suits toxic proteins, membrane proteins, and aggregation-prone proteins that are burdensome in vivo.[26](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7037961/) The PURE system supports efficient sense and nonsense suppression for incorporating non-canonical amino acids into peptidomimetic drugs.[27](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7026604/) On the manufacturing side, the iVAX E. coli cell-free conjugate vaccine system produces 24 µg, roughly one dose, for $0.50–$1.00 per dose depending on storage conditions.[28](https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/bitstream/handle/fub188/46425/cr4c00126.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=2)\n\nBatch CFE reactions reach up to 4 mg/mL and more than 20 hours of protein synthesis, while semicontinuous reactions with semipermeable membrane exchange reach 8 mg/mL and 14 days; reaction volumes scale from femtoliters in microfluidic systems to more than 100 L.[1](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11719329/) E. coli-based systems give 100 µg/mL to 2–3 mg/mL in 1.5–3 hour batch runs.[4](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40259-020-00417-y) Commercial benchmarks fall lower: the NEBExpress E. coli system routinely produces 0.05–0.5 mg/mL, and PURExpress up to 0.25 mg/mL.[3](https://www.neb.com/en/-/media/nebus/files/manuals/manuale5360.pdf)\n\nCFPS reactions can be lyophilized as pellets or on porous matrices such as filter paper or cellulose, allowing room-temperature storage and later activation by rehydration,[29](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10196276/) and a portable freeze-dried reaction-pellet platform provides on-site, on-demand manufacturing of therapeutics and biomolecules relevant to low-resource settings.[30](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2016.09.013) In diagnostics, CFPS platforms now integrate modular genetic circuits, CRISPR-based detection, isothermal amplification, and portable formats such as paper devices and microfluidic chips for detecting viral nucleic acids, pathogen antigens, and small molecules.[31](https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acssensors.5c04869)\n\n## Limitations and alternatives\n\nPURE batch reactions often terminate earlier than S30 reactions, attributed to depletion of energy substrates, accumulation of inhibitory byproducts, and shortage of tRNAs and amino acids.[32](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5501384/) [Phosphate](https://www.edgepedia.org/phosphate) accumulation from energy regeneration lowers magnesium and halts synthesis.[8](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9996726/) Lysates contain proteases and nucleases that inhibit synthesis and complicate assays and purification.[33](https://bmcbiotechnol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6750-8-58) Premature termination is diminished by supplementing rare tRNAs or codon optimization, and internal starts are reduced by mutagenizing downstream ATGs and ribosome binding sites.[11](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4211082/) Rare codons can impede translation, but codon-optimized versions can reduce protein function through misfolding.[8](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9996726/) Adding 3′ UTR tails yields up to a 26-fold increase in protein yield even in PURE systems.[8](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9996726/) The PURE system is also cold-sensitive, showing almost no activity at 20 °C in the first 30 minutes, and lacks chaperones; adding GroEL/ES alone raises functional luciferase yield by 60%.[33](https://bmcbiotechnol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6750-8-58) • [32](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5501384/) E. coli lysates lack native post-translational modification machinery, although N-glycosylated proteins have been synthesized in extracts enriched with oligosaccharyltransferases and lipid-linked oligosaccharides.[4](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40259-020-00417-y)\n\nCosts differ sharply by platform. Commercial PURE reactions cost $0.99/µL versus $0.15–0.57/µL for crude-extract reactions,[5](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/8/6/675) and the PURE system's yield of active firefly luciferase is 3-fold lower than a crude extract system while costing about 4 times more per gram of protein.[34](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0106232) The low-cost OnePot PURE preparation reached 156 µg/mL at $0.09/µL, a 14-fold improvement in cost-normalized yield over existing PURE systems.[35](https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acssynbio.8b00427) Compared with in vivo production, cell-free synthesis remains expensive: optimized E. coli bioprocesses cost about $0.04 per gram of protein, and a techno-economic assessment found unit production costs of $85 in vivo versus $1925 in vitro for antibody production at large scale.[28](https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/bitstream/handle/fub188/46425/cr4c00126.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=2) Published comparisons of PURE and crude extracts do not fully agree: one head-to-head study found the S30 system produced about 1.5-fold more functional luciferase, while by full-length band intensity the PURE system produced about 358 µg/mL versus about 58 µg/mL for S30, indicating that PURE makes more full-length product but less of it active.[32](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5501384/)\n\nUncoupled reactions, in which mRNA is transcribed first and then translated, are preferred in eukaryotic platforms, and pseudouridine-modified mRNA enhances translation in rabbit reticulocyte lysate.[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6481089/) Cell-based expression remains far cheaper at scale, but IVTT is optimally suited for difficult-to-synthesize proteins, large proteins, high-GC genes, membrane proteins, and virus-like particles.[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6481089/) Work on self-regenerating systems continues: a 2026 [Nature Communications](https://www.edgepedia.org/nature-communications) paper reports reconstitution of the PURE system from self-synthesized proteins, extending efforts to regenerate tRNA, ribosomes, and non-ribosomal proteins inside the reaction.[36](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-026-73337-0)\n\n## References\n\n1. [Cell-Free Gene Expression: Methods and Applications (ACS review)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11719329/)\n2. [A User's Guide to Cell-Free Protein Synthesis (2019)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6481089/)\n3. [NEBExpress Cell-free E. coli Protein Synthesis System Manual (NEB #E5360)](https://www.neb.com/en/-/media/nebus/files/manuals/manuale5360.pdf)\n4. [Cell-Free Protein Synthesis: A Promising Option for Future Drug Development (BioDrugs)](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40259-020-00417-y)\n5. [The Evolution of Cell Free Biomanufacturing (Processes, 2020)](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/8/6/675)\n6. [Protocols for Implementing an Escherichia coli Based TX-TL Cell-Free Expression System for Synthetic Biology (JoVE)](https://www.jove.com/t/50762/protocols-for-implementing-an-escherichia-coli-based-tx-tl-cell-free)\n7. [Automated and Programmable Cell-Free Systems for Scalable Synthetic Biology with a Focus on Biofoundry Integration](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12463565/)\n8. [Optimising protein synthesis in cell-free systems, a review](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9996726/)\n9. [S30 T7 High-Yield Protein Expression System Technical Manual #TM306 (Promega)](https://www.promega.com/-/media/files/resources/protocols/technical-manuals/0/s30-t7-high-yield-protein-expression-system-protocol.pdf?rev=33cab40ef0d3491daf593a78d2b0b243&sc_lang=en)\n10. [A Simple and Rapid Method for Preparing a Cell-Free Bacterial Lysate for Protein Synthesis (PLOS ONE)](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0165137)\n11. [Protein Synthesis Using A Reconstituted Cell-Free System (PURExpress protocol)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4211082/)\n12. [Marshall W. Nirenberg, J. Heinrich Matthaei (1961). The dependence of cell-free protein synthesis in E. coli upon naturally occurring or synthetic polyribonucleotides. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.](https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.47.10.1588)\n13. [The Dependence of Cell-Free Protein Synthesis in E. coli Upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic Polyribonucleotides (Nirenberg & Matthaei, 1961)](https://njc.rockefeller.edu/pdf3/NirenbergMatthaeiPNAS1961.pdf)\n14. [Development of a cell-free protein synthesis system for practical use (Endo lab history)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8141837/)\n15. [Bryan E. Roberts, Bruce M. Paterson (1973). Efficient Translation of Tobacco Mosaic Virus RNA and Rabbit Globin 9S RNA in a Cell-Free System from Commercial Wheat Germ. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.](https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.70.8.2330)\n16. [Hugh R. B. PELHAM, Richard J. JACKSON (1976). An Efficient mRNA‐Dependent Translation System from Reticulocyte Lysates. European Journal of Biochemistry.](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-1033.1976.tb10656.x)\n17. [Alexander S. Spirin and colleagues (1988). A Continuous Cell-Free Translation System Capable of Producing Polypeptides in High Yield. Science.](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3055301)\n18. [A coupled in vitro transcription‐translation system for the exclusive synthesis of polypeptides expressed from the T7 promoter (FEBS Letters, 1991)](https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-5793%2891%2981297-l)\n19. [Kairat Madin and colleagues (2000). A highly efficient and robust cell-free protein synthesis system prepared from wheat embryos: Plants apparently contain a suicide system directed at ribosomes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.](https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.2.559)\n20. [Yoshihiro Shimizu and colleagues (2001). Cell-free translation reconstituted with purified components. Nature Biotechnology.](https://doi.org/10.1038/90802)\n21. [Takanori Kigawa and colleagues (2004). Preparation of Escherichia coli cell extract for highly productive cell-free protein expression. Journal of Structural and Functional Genomics.](https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jsfg.0000029204.57846.7d)\n22. [Andreas K. Brödel, Andrei Sonnabend, Stefan Kubick (2013). Cell‐free protein expression based on extracts from CHO cells. Biotechnology and Bioengineering.](https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.25013)\n23. [In vitro synthesis of 32 translation-factor proteins from a single template reveals impaired ribosomal processivity | Scientific Reports](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-80827-8)\n24. [Cell-Free PURE System: Evolution and Achievements](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10521753/)\n25. [A High-Yield Streptomyces TX-TL Protocol (Imperial College Spiral)](https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstreams/2534ce61-d36a-4e91-9279-0ae65ff06e83/download)\n26. [Escherichia coli Extract-Based Cell-Free Expression System as an Alternative for Difficult-to-Obtain Protein Biosynthesis](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7037961/)\n27. [Strategies for in vitro engineering of the translation machinery](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7026604/)\n28. [Protein Synthesis Methodologies (dissertation chapter, Refubium)](https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/bitstream/handle/fub188/46425/cr4c00126.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=2)\n29. [Advancing synthetic biology through cell-free protein synthesis](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10196276/)\n30. [Portable, On-Demand Biomolecular Manufacturing (Cell, 2016)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2016.09.013)\n31. [Cell-Free Protein Synthesis-Based Biosensing Platforms for Clinical Diagnostics](https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acssensors.5c04869)\n32. [Dissecting limiting factors of the Protein synthesis Using Recombinant Elements (PURE) system](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5501384/)\n33. [A comparative study of protein synthesis in in vitro systems: from the prokaryotic reconstituted to the eukaryotic extract-based (BMC Biotechnology, 2008)](https://bmcbiotechnol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6750-8-58)\n34. [Improved Cell-Free RNA and Protein Synthesis System | PLOS One](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0106232)\n35. [A Simple, Robust, and Low-Cost Method To Produce the PURE Cell-Free System | ACS Synthetic Biology](https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acssynbio.8b00427)\n36. [PURE makes PURE: reconstitution of the PURE cell-free system from self-synthesized proteins](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-026-73337-0)\n\n---\n*Topic: Encyclopedia › Life and health › Biological foundations › Biochemistry and metabolism › Biochemistry field and methods › Biochemical methods and techniques*\n\n*Initially written Sep 29, 2026 · Edited: Oct 15, 2026*\n\n*Copyright 2026 EdgeChat AI, a subsidiary of Biostate AI.*\n\nLicense: Edgepedia Community License 1.0, https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license\n", "same_as": [], "url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/in-vitro-transcription-and-translation", "markdown_url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/in-vitro-transcription-and-translation.md", "license": { "name": "Edgepedia Community License 1.0", "url": "https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license", "summary": "Free with credit, commercial use included. AI training is open to everyone. For other uses, organizations over USD 100M in revenue or 100M monthly users license separately.", "spdx": "LicenseRef-Edgepedia-Community-1.0" }, "credit": "\"In vitro transcription and translation\", Edgepedia (EdgeChat), https://www.edgepedia.org/in-vitro-transcription-and-translation. Edgepedia Community License 1.0.", "credit_md": "\"[In vitro transcription and translation](https://www.edgepedia.org/in-vitro-transcription-and-translation)\", Edgepedia (EdgeChat), [https://www.edgepedia.org/in-vitro-transcription-and-translation](https://www.edgepedia.org/in-vitro-transcription-and-translation). [Edgepedia Community License 1.0](https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license).", "credit_html": "\"In vitro transcription and translation\", Edgepedia (EdgeChat), https://www.edgepedia.org/in-vitro-transcription-and-translation. Edgepedia Community License 1.0.", "speakable": "In vitro transcription and translation, also called cell-free protein synthesis, is a bench method that synthesizes proteins outside living cells from a DNA or RNA template." }