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 "slug": "instance-segmentation",
 "title": "Instance segmentation",
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 "excerpt": "Instance segmentation is a computer vision method that detects each individual object in an image and assigns it a pixel-level mask, class label, and confidence score.",
 "snippet": "Instance segmentation is a computer vision method that detects each individual object in an image and assigns it a pixel-level mask, class label, and confidence score.",
 "node": "technology.computing.ai.cv_methods",
 "markdown": "# Instance segmentation\n\nInstance segmentation is a computer vision method that detects each individual object in an image and assigns it a pixel-level mask together with a class label and a confidence score, so that overlapping objects of the same class are told apart. It therefore solves object detection and semantic segmentation at the same time: it both locates objects and marks the exact outline of every single instance.<sup>[1](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-022-01407-3)</sup> Where semantic segmentation treats all objects of one class as a single entity, instance segmentation treats individual objects as distinct entities regardless of class.<sup>[2](https://www.mathworks.com/help/vision/ug/getting-started-with-instance-segmentation-using-deep-learning.html)</sup> Two cars parked side by side receive two separate masks, which semantic segmentation cannot provide.<sup>[2](https://www.mathworks.com/help/vision/ug/getting-started-with-instance-segmentation-using-deep-learning.html)</sup>\n\n| Key fact | Value |\n|---|---|\n| Output per instance | Pixel-level mask, class label, score, bounding box<sup>[3](https://docs.pytorch.org/vision/2.0/models/generated/torchvision.models.detection.maskrcnn_resnet50_fpn.html)</sup> |\n| Mask R-CNN accuracy | 35.7 mask AP (ResNet-101-FPN), 37.1 (ResNeXt-101-FPN) on COCO<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup> |\n| Mask2Former accuracy | 50.1 AP on COCO instance segmentation<sup>[5](https://huggingface.co/docs/transformers/v5.8.1/en/model_doc/mask2former)</sup> |\n| Real-time speed | YOLACT: 29.8 mAP at 33.5 fps on a Titan Xp<sup>[6](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2019/papers/Bolya_YOLACT_Real-Time_Instance_Segmentation_ICCV_2019_paper.pdf)</sup> |\n| Training cost (Mask R-CNN) | One to two days on a single 8-GPU machine for COCO<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup> |\n| Annotation burden | Pixel-level labeling plus separating instances of the same class<sup>[1](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-022-01407-3)</sup> |\n| Post-2023 direction | SAM 3: zero-shot mask AP 48.8 on LVIS, 30 ms per image on an H200 GPU<sup>[7](https://arxiv.org/abs/2511.16719)</sup> |\n\n## How it works\n\nThe dominant principle is the detect-then-segment paradigm: the system first finds the region of an instance through object detection, then predicts a mask inside that area.<sup>[8](https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/journals/journal-of-electronic-imaging/volume-31/issue-04/041205/Review-of-object-instance-segmentation-based-on-deep-learning/10.1117/1.JEI.31.4.041205.pdf)</sup> In Mask R-CNN, this means extending Faster R-CNN with a third branch that predicts a segmentation mask on each Region of Interest (RoI), in parallel with the existing classification and bounding-box regression branches; the mask branch is a small fully convolutional network (FCN) applied to each RoI, predicting a mask pixel-to-pixel.<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup>\n\nTwo design choices make the masks accurate. First, RoIAlign replaces the quantizing RoIPool with a quantization-free layer that preserves exact spatial locations; despite being a small change, it improves mask accuracy by a relative 10% to 50%.<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup> Second, mask and class prediction are decoupled: the mask branch predicts K binary masks per RoI, one per class, and only the k-th mask, corresponding to the predicted class, is used.<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup> Training optimizes a multi-task loss\n\n\\[ L = L_{\\mathrm{cls}} + L_{\\mathrm{box}} + L_{\\mathrm{mask}} \\]\n\nwhere \\( L_{\\mathrm{mask}} \\) is the average binary cross-entropy defined only on the k-th mask for an RoI of ground-truth class k.<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup>\n\n## How it is done\n\nA two-stage network runs in two steps: a [region proposal network](https://www.edgepedia.org/region-proposal-network) predicts proposal bounding boxes from anchor boxes, then an R-CNN detector refines the proposals, classifies them, and computes pixel-level segmentation for each.<sup>[9](https://www.mathworks.com/help/vision/ug/getting-started-with-mask-r-cnn-for-instance-segmentation.html)</sup> At test time, [Mask R-CNN](https://www.edgepedia.org/mask-r-cnn) uses 300 proposals with a C4 backbone or 1000 with [FPN](https://www.edgepedia.org/feature-pyramid-network), applies non-maximum suppression, and runs the mask branch only on the top 100 detection boxes, which adds roughly 20% overhead to Faster R-CNN; the \\( m \\times m \\) mask output is resized to the RoI and binarized at a threshold of 0.5.<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup>\n\nTraining uses standard detection recipes: images resized so the shorter edge is 800 pixels, 2 images per GPU with a 1:3 positive-to-negative RoI ratio, 8 GPUs, and 160k iterations.<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup> Training ResNet-50-FPN on COCO trainval35k takes 32 hours in a synchronized 8-GPU implementation, and 44 hours with ResNet-101-FPN.<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup> The data requirement is the expensive part: annotation needs pixel-level labeling as in semantic segmentation, plus differentiating individual instances of the same class, which is costly, and the task overall is computationally expensive, memory demanding, and data greedy.<sup>[1](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-022-01407-3)</sup> [Ground truth](https://www.edgepedia.org/ground-truth) can be supplied as one binary mask per instance, for example a logical array of size H-by-W-by-NumObjects.<sup>[9](https://www.mathworks.com/help/vision/ug/getting-started-with-mask-r-cnn-for-instance-segmentation.html)</sup>\n\n## Origin\n\nInstance segmentation matured through a series of precursors before Mask R-CNN. A retrospective account credits MNC with formulating the task as a cascaded three-sub-task pipeline (instance localization, mask prediction, object categorization) trained end-to-end, and FCIS with extending InstanceFCN into a fully convolutional approach; Mask R-CNN then added an extra mask branch to Faster R-CNN and showed that a simple pipeline yields promising results.<sup>[10](https://ar5iv.labs.arxiv.org/html/1901.07518)</sup> MNC was reported by Dai, He, and Sun (2015) on arXiv<sup>[11](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1512.04412)</sup>, and FCIS by Li and colleagues (2016) on arXiv.<sup>[12](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1611.07709)</sup> Other early approaches include InstanceCut, which derived instances from edges with MultiCut (Kirillov and colleagues, 2016)<sup>[13](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1611.08272)</sup>, and the Dynamically Instantiated Network for pixelwise prediction (Arnab and Torr, 2017).<sup>[14](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1704.02386)</sup> Mask R-CNN itself was reported by He, Gkioxari, Dollár, and Girshick in 2017 on arXiv<sup>[15](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1703.06870)</sup>, was simple to train, added only a small overhead to Faster R-CNN, generalized to human pose estimation in the same framework, and achieved top results in all three COCO challenge tracks of its time.<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup> Later cascade refinements include Hybrid Task Cascade (Chen and colleagues, 2019)<sup>[16](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1901.07518)</sup>, which the same retrospective places alongside PANet, which added a bottom-up path beside the top-down path in FPN.<sup>[10](https://ar5iv.labs.arxiv.org/html/1901.07518)</sup>\n\n## Variants\n\n**Two-stage RoI-based.** Mask R-CNN adds a mask head on top of Faster R-CNN working in parallel with classification and regression, using RoIAlign instead of RoIPool; backbones include ResNet-101-C4, ResNet-101-FPN, and ResNeXt-101-FPN.<sup>[1](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-022-01407-3)</sup>\n\n**Real-time prototype-based.** YOLACT, presented by Bolya, Zhou, Xiao, and Lee at ICCV 2019, breaks the task into two parallel subtasks: generating a set of prototype masks over the whole image and predicting per-instance mask coefficients, then producing instance masks by linearly combining the prototypes with the coefficients without repooling; it also proposes Fast NMS, a drop-in replacement 12 ms faster than standard NMS with only a marginal performance penalty.<sup>[6](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2019/papers/Bolya_YOLACT_Real-Time_Instance_Segmentation_ICCV_2019_paper.pdf)</sup> The follow-up YOLACT++ improved real-time results (Bolya, Zhou, Xiao, and Lee, 2019).<sup>[17](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1912.06218)</sup> CondInst instead uses conditional convolutions conditioned on the instance (Tian, Shen, and Chen, 2020).<sup>[18](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2003.05664)</sup>\n\n**Location-based direct prediction.** SOLO associates the category prediction and the corresponding mask by a reference grid cell, with \\( k = i \\cdot S + j \\), using only NMS as post-processing.<sup>[19](https://arxiv.org/abs/1912.04488)</sup> In SOLOv2 the image is divided into grids over multiple feature-pyramid levels, and each grid cell predicts a dynamic kernel that is convolved with a shared, high-resolution mask feature map to produce that object's binary mask, decoupling mask representation into a kernel branch \\( G \\in \\mathbb{R}^{S \\times S \\times D} \\) and a unified mask feature \\( F \\in \\mathbb{R}^{H \\times W \\times E} \\).<sup>[20](https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper_files/paper/2020/file/cd3afef9b8b89558cd56638c3631868a-Paper.pdf)</sup> SOLOv2 is single-stage, directly estimates object centers and associated masks through anchor point localization, and generally trains faster with lower computational cost and smaller training data than Mask R-CNN.<sup>[25](https://www.mathworks.com/help/vision/ug/getting-started-with-solov2-for-instance-segmentation.html)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[2](https://www.mathworks.com/help/vision/ug/getting-started-with-instance-segmentation-using-deep-learning.html)</sup>\n\n**Query-based universal segmentation.** Mask2Former (Cheng, Misra, Schwing, Kirillov, and Girdhar, 2021) is a masked-attention mask transformer for universal image segmentation, covering instance, semantic, and panoptic tasks with one architecture.<sup>[21](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2112.01527)</sup>\n\n**Promptable segmentation.** The SAM series introduced promptable visual segmentation with points, boxes, or masks to segment a single object per prompt, but did not address segmenting all instances of a concept.<sup>[7](https://arxiv.org/abs/2511.16719)</sup> SAM 2 extended this to images and videos (Ravi and colleagues, 2024).<sup>[22](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2408.00714)</sup> SAM 3 is a unified model that detects, segments, and tracks objects in images and videos from concept prompts, defined as short noun phrases (for example \"yellow school bus\"), image exemplars, or both; it reaches a zero-shot mask AP of 48.8 on LVIS versus a previous best of 38.5, and on an H200 GPU runs in 30 ms for a single image with 100+ detected objects.<sup>[7](https://arxiv.org/abs/2511.16719)</sup>\n\n## Applications\n\nAccuracy on COCO has risen steadily. Mask R-CNN reached 35.7 mask AP with ResNet-101-FPN and 37.1 with ResNeXt-101-FPN, versus 33.6 for FCIS+++OHEM with ResNet-101-C5-dilated.<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup> Mask2Former set a then state of the art of 50.1 AP on COCO instance segmentation, alongside 57.8 PQ on panoptic and 57.7 mIoU on ADE20K.<sup>[5](https://huggingface.co/docs/transformers/v5.8.1/en/model_doc/mask2former)</sup>\n\nSpeeds depend strongly on hardware and year. Mask R-CNN models run at about 200 ms per frame on a GPU (about 5 fps).<sup>[4](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)</sup> A 2022 benchmark on COCO val2017 found accuracy-focused models at Dual-Swin-L 51.0 AP and Mask R-CNN 38.6, and speed-focused models at CenterMask 36.7, SOLOv2 36.4, and YOLACT 30.9; on an RTX 3090, Dual-Swin-L runs at 1.9 FPS versus 53.5 FPS for YolactEdge (177.3 FPS with TensorRT), with mask AP decreasing roughly inversely as FPS increases.<sup>[23](https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/12/17/8856)</sup>\n\n## Limitations and alternatives\n\nThe main failure modes are small objects and boundary quality. Mask AP for small objects (area below \\( 32^{2} \\) pixels) is lower than overall mask AP for all models in a systematic benchmark, indicating small objects are harder to segment.<sup>[23](https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/12/17/8856)</sup> Reviews report low accuracy for small objects with missing and wrong segmentation, and successfully segmented small objects often show low IoU with the real object and blurred boundaries.<sup>[8](https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/journals/journal-of-electronic-imaging/volume-31/issue-04/041205/Review-of-object-instance-segmentation-based-on-deep-learning/10.1117/1.JEI.31.4.041205.pdf)</sup> Remaining challenges also include image degradation, occlusions, inaccurate depth estimation, and aerial images.<sup>[1](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-022-01407-3)</sup> A structural consequence of the detect-boxes-then-mask ordering is that masks can overlap and a pixel can belong to two instances, because nothing forces a single answer per pixel.<sup>[24](https://vizlearn.in/computer_vision/segmentation_tasks.html)</sup>\n\nAgainst the alternatives: semantic segmentation predicts a class per pixel without distinguishing instances; panoptic segmentation combines both, predicting foreground and background while distinguishing instances of the same class; instance segmentation distinguishes instances but predicts only foreground pixels.<sup>[23](https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/12/17/8856)</sup> [Annotation](https://www.edgepedia.org/annotation) cost remains the practical bottleneck, since pixel-level instance labels are expensive to produce.<sup>[1](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-022-01407-3)</sup>\n\n## References\n\n1. [A Survey on Object Instance Segmentation (SN Computer Science, 2022)](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-022-01407-3)\n2. [Get Started with Instance Segmentation Using Deep Learning (MathWorks)](https://www.mathworks.com/help/vision/ug/getting-started-with-instance-segmentation-using-deep-learning.html)\n3. [torchvision Mask R-CNN ResNet-50-FPN documentation](https://docs.pytorch.org/vision/2.0/models/generated/torchvision.models.detection.maskrcnn_resnet50_fpn.html)\n4. [Mask R-CNN (He, Gkioxari, Dollár, Girshick, ICCV 2017)](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2017/papers/He_Mask_R-CNN_ICCV_2017_paper.pdf)\n5. [Mask2Former (Transformers documentation)](https://huggingface.co/docs/transformers/v5.8.1/en/model_doc/mask2former)\n6. [YOLACT: Real-Time Instance Segmentation (Bolya et al., ICCV 2019)](https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_ICCV_2019/papers/Bolya_YOLACT_Real-Time_Instance_Segmentation_ICCV_2019_paper.pdf)\n7. [SAM 3: Segment Anything with Concepts (arXiv:2511.16719, Meta)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2511.16719)\n8. [Review of object instance segmentation based on deep learning (Journal of Electronic Imaging, SPIE)](https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/journals/journal-of-electronic-imaging/volume-31/issue-04/041205/Review-of-object-instance-segmentation-based-on-deep-learning/10.1117/1.JEI.31.4.041205.pdf)\n9. [Getting Started with Mask R-CNN for Instance Segmentation (MathWorks)](https://www.mathworks.com/help/vision/ug/getting-started-with-mask-r-cnn-for-instance-segmentation.html)\n10. [Hybrid Task Cascade for Instance Segmentation (arXiv:1901.07518)](https://ar5iv.labs.arxiv.org/html/1901.07518)\n11. [Dai, Jifeng, He, Kaiming, Sun, Jian (2015). Instance-aware Semantic Segmentation via Multi-task Network Cascades. arXiv (Cornell University).](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1512.04412)\n12. [Li, Yi and colleagues (2016). Fully Convolutional Instance-aware Semantic Segmentation. arXiv (Cornell University).](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1611.07709)\n13. [Kirillov, Alexander and colleagues (2016). InstanceCut: from Edges to Instances with MultiCut. arXiv (Cornell University).](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1611.08272)\n14. [Arnab, Anurag, Torr, Philip H. S (2017). Pixelwise Instance Segmentation with a Dynamically Instantiated Network. arXiv (Cornell University).](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1704.02386)\n15. [He, Kaiming and colleagues (2017). Mask R-CNN. arXiv (Cornell University).](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1703.06870)\n16. [Chen, Kai and colleagues (2019). Hybrid Task Cascade for Instance Segmentation. arXiv (Cornell University).](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1901.07518)\n17. [Bolya, Daniel and colleagues (2019). YOLACT++: Better Real-time Instance Segmentation. arXiv (Cornell University).](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1912.06218)\n18. [Tian, Zhi, Shen, Chunhua, Chen, Hao (2020). Conditional Convolutions for Instance Segmentation. arXiv (Cornell University).](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2003.05664)\n19. [SOLO: Segmenting Objects by Locations (arXiv:1912.04488)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1912.04488)\n20. [SOLOv2: Dynamic and Fast Instance Segmentation (NeurIPS 2020)](https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper_files/paper/2020/file/cd3afef9b8b89558cd56638c3631868a-Paper.pdf)\n21. [Cheng, Bowen and colleagues (2021). Masked-attention Mask Transformer for Universal Image Segmentation. arXiv (Cornell University).](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2112.01527)\n22. [Ravi, Nikhila and colleagues (2024). SAM 2: Segment Anything in Images and Videos. arXiv (Cornell University).](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2408.00714)\n23. [Benchmarking Deep Learning Models for Instance Segmentation (Applied Sciences, MDPI)](https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/12/17/8856)\n24. [Semantic, Instance and Panoptic Segmentation | VizLearn](https://vizlearn.in/computer_vision/segmentation_tasks.html)\n25. [Getting started with solov2 for instance segmentation (mathworks.com)](https://www.mathworks.com/help/vision/ug/getting-started-with-solov2-for-instance-segmentation.html)\n\n---\n*Topic: Encyclopedia › Technology and the built world › Computing and digital systems › Artificial intelligence and data › Language and vision AI › Computer vision › Vision methods and geometry*\n\n*Initially written Sep 29, 2026 · Reviewed: Sep 30, 2026 · Edited: Sep 30, 2026 · Last review: Sep 30, 2026*\n\n*Copyright 2026 EdgeChat AI, a subsidiary of Biostate AI.*\n\nLicense: Edgepedia Community License 1.0, https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license\n",
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 "credit": "\"Instance segmentation\", Edgepedia (EdgeChat), https://www.edgepedia.org/instance-segmentation. Edgepedia Community License 1.0.",
 "credit_md": "\"[Instance segmentation](https://www.edgepedia.org/instance-segmentation)\", Edgepedia (EdgeChat), [https://www.edgepedia.org/instance-segmentation](https://www.edgepedia.org/instance-segmentation). [Edgepedia Community License 1.0](https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license).",
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 "speakable": "Instance segmentation is a computer vision method that detects each individual object in an image and assigns it a pixel-level mask, class label, and confidence score."
}