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 "title": "Load shedding",
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 "excerpt": "Load shedding is the deliberate, preplanned dropping of electrical load in stages, triggered by falling frequency, to keep a power system stable and prevent a total blackout.",
 "snippet": "Load shedding is the deliberate, preplanned dropping of electrical load in stages, triggered by falling frequency, to keep a power system stable and prevent a total blackout.",
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 "markdown": "# Load shedding\n\nLoad shedding is the deliberate, preplanned dropping of electrical load, in discrete steps and according to a fixed program, to keep a power system from collapsing when generation cannot cover demand. In power systems it protects frequency and voltage stability: when load exceeds generation, frequency falls, and shedding enough load arrests the decline before generators trip and the system blacks out.<sup>[1](https://www.ferc.gov/sites/default/files/2020-05/E-3_25.pdf)</sup> Automatic underfrequency load shedding (UFLS) is designed to stabilize the balance between generation and load after an island forms, dropping enough load to let frequency recover within the island.<sup>[1](https://www.ferc.gov/sites/default/files/2020-05/E-3_25.pdf)</sup>\n\n| Key fact | Value |\n|---|---|\n| What is dropped | Preselected electrical load feeders, in stages; critical loads such as hospitals are typically excluded<sup>[1](https://www.ferc.gov/sites/default/files/2020-05/E-3_25.pdf)</sup> |\n| Primary trigger | Frequency below set point (typically 59.5–57.0 Hz on a 60 Hz grid); voltage for UVLS<sup>[2](https://technav.ieee.org/topic/load-shedding/)</sup> |\n| Typical stages | 3–6 stages<sup>[3](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10273701)</sup> |\n| Total shed capability | 25% (ERCOT) to 75% (AEMO SWIS) of load, depending on jurisdiction<sup>[4](https://www.nerc.com/globalassets/who-we-are/standing-committees/rstc/spiderwg/recommended_approaches_for_ufls_program_design_with_increasing_penetrations_of_ders.pdf)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[5](https://www.wa.gov.au/system/files/2022-06/UFLS-Requirements.pdf)</sup> |\n| Relay response time | ≤150 ms recommended in Europe, 300 ms maximum; 0.4 s per stage in the SWIS scheme<sup>[6](https://eepublicdownloads.entsoe.eu/clean-documents/Network%20codes%20documents/NC%20ER/141215_Technical_background_for_LFDD.pdf)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[5](https://www.wa.gov.au/system/files/2022-06/UFLS-Requirements.pdf)</sup> |\n| Design imbalance covered | Up to 25% of load in NERC PRC-006-5 simulations<sup>[7](https://www.nerc.com/globalassets/standards/reliability-standards/prc/prc-006-5.pdf)</sup> |\n\n## How it works\n\nFrequency is the balance signal. All synchronous generators in North America are designed to operate at 60 Hz, and frequency reflects how well load and generation are balanced; when load exceeds generation, frequency drops below 60 Hz.<sup>[1](https://www.ferc.gov/sites/default/files/2020-05/E-3_25.pdf)</sup> Underfrequency relays measure the system frequency and trip preselected feeders when it crosses a set point. The rate of initial decline is set by the power imbalance and system inertia, described by the relation \\( R = \\frac{p \\cdot L \\cdot (f_{1} - f_{0})}{H \\cdot (1 - f_{1}^{2}/f_{0}^{2})} \\), where \\( R \\) is the average rate of frequency change in Hz/s, p is the power factor, L the per-unit overload, f₀ and f₁ the initial and final frequencies, and H the inertial constant in MW·s/MVA.<sup>[8](https://pdhonline.com/courses/m513/m513content.pdf)</sup> Set points are placed above the frequencies at which generators disconnect, so shedding occurs before generation is lost.<sup>[1](https://www.ferc.gov/sites/default/files/2020-05/E-3_25.pdf)</sup> [Undervoltage load shedding](https://www.edgepedia.org/undervoltage-load-shedding) (UVLS) instead addresses voltage collapse: it monitors bus voltages and activates when voltage remains depressed for a threshold duration.<sup>[2](https://technav.ieee.org/topic/load-shedding/)</sup> Adaptive schemes estimate the disturbance itself, for example from the frequency falling rate (FFR) and a voltage falling rate (VFR) measured locally, to concentrate shedding near the disturbance.<sup>[9](https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-gtd.2013.0937)</sup>\n\n## How it is done\n\nA UFLS program is designed around three factors: the underfrequency set point, the minimum amount of load to shed, and which load, at which locations, to shed; the shedding devices are commonly installed on the distribution side.<sup>[1](https://www.ferc.gov/sites/default/files/2020-05/E-3_25.pdf)</sup> In operation, relays monitor frequency continuously; when it crosses a stage set point and holds past a time delay (SERC requires at least six cycles, 0.1 s<sup>[10](https://www.serc.org/docs/default-source/program-areas/standards-regional-criteria/standards-documents/prc-006-serc-03_clean.pdf?sfvrsn=c8a4a021_8)</sup>), that stage's feeders trip. Loads are prioritized: critical loads such as hospitals, police stations, and fire stations are typically excluded from UFLS programs.<sup>[1](https://www.ferc.gov/sites/default/files/2020-05/E-3_25.pdf)</sup> After the event, restoration is staged: AEMO's manual shedding standard requires the next specified load block to be disconnected before restoring the presently interrupted block, with consideration of cold load pickup and delayed operation of inverter-based embedded generation.<sup>[11](https://www.aemo.com.au/-/media/files/electricity/nem/security_and_reliability/power_system_ops/manual-load-shedding-standard.pdf?la=en)</sup>\n\nSet-point ladders differ by jurisdiction. ERCOT sheds 25% total across five stages at 59.3, 59.1, 58.9, 58.7, and 58.5 Hz, each stage providing 5% load relief (with only optional Supplemental Anti-Stall UFLS stages at 59.5 Hz), while PJM zones shed 28–50% total; the first stage typically occurs around 59.5–59.3 Hz.<sup>[4](https://www.nerc.com/globalassets/who-we-are/standing-committees/rstc/spiderwg/recommended_approaches_for_ufls_program_design_with_increasing_penetrations_of_ders.pdf)</sup> SERC requires capability to shed at least 30% of peak demand with at least three set points, the highest between 59.3 and 59.6 Hz and the lowest no lower than 58.2 Hz.<sup>[10](https://www.serc.org/docs/default-source/program-areas/standards-regional-criteria/standards-documents/prc-006-serc-03_clean.pdf?sfvrsn=c8a4a021_8)</sup> In continental Europe, ENTSO-E recommends an operating range of 49.0–48.0 Hz, steps of 5–10% of reference load, a minimum of six steps per TSO, a total between 40% and 50% of reference load, and total relay tripping time of 150 ms or less (300 ms maximum), noting relay measurement accuracy of ±30 mHz.<sup>[6](https://eepublicdownloads.entsoe.eu/clean-documents/Network%20codes%20documents/NC%20ER/141215_Technical_background_for_LFDD.pdf)</sup>\n\n## Origin\n\n Automatic UFLS has been used in North America as a last-line defense since the late 1960s, after recommendations following the 1965 northeast blackout, which lost 20,000 MW of load and affected 30 million people.<sup>[12](https://cms-cdn.selinc.com/assets/Literature/Publications/Technical%20Papers/7006_NeedFaster_KB_20210310_Web.pdf?v=20210324-233121)</sup> The National Electric Reliability Council, now NERC, was formed on June 1, 1968, and load-shedding practices were among the study areas the Federal Power Commission urged it to address.<sup>[12](https://cms-cdn.selinc.com/assets/Literature/Publications/Technical%20Papers/7006_NeedFaster_KB_20210310_Web.pdf?v=20210324-233121)</sup> An early paper on applying underfrequency relays for automatic load shedding, by H. Lokay and V. Burtnyk, appeared in IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems in 1968.<sup>[13](https://doi.org/10.1109/tpas.1968.292193)</sup> Concepts of undervoltage load shedding for voltage stability were set out by C.W. Taylor in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery in 1992.<sup>[14](https://doi.org/10.1109/61.127040)</sup> A localized scheme targeting the most affected localities was proposed by D. Prasetijo, W.R. Lachs, and D. Sutanto in IEEE Transactions on Power Systems in 1994, a precursor of adaptive and localized UFLS.<sup>[15](https://doi.org/10.1109/59.336128)</sup> Adaptive underfrequency load shedding based on the magnitude of the [disturbance estimation](https://www.edgepedia.org/disturbance-estimation) was introduced by V.V. Terzija in IEEE Transactions on Power Systems in 2006.<sup>[16](https://doi.org/10.1109/tpwrs.2006.879315)</sup> Undervoltage load shedding using distributed controllers was developed by Bogdan Otomega and Thierry Van Cutsem in IEEE Transactions on Power Systems in 2007.<sup>[17](https://doi.org/10.1109/tpwrs.2007.907354)</sup> Most North American Planning Coordinators still use the strategy devised after the 1965 blackout: a percentage of total load shed in multiple steps at different set points with intentional relay time delay.<sup>[12](https://cms-cdn.selinc.com/assets/Literature/Publications/Technical%20Papers/7006_NeedFaster_KB_20210310_Web.pdf?v=20210324-233121)</sup> Codification followed: IEEE Guide C37.117-2007 defines relay application principles and step-size guidance,<sup>[2](https://technav.ieee.org/topic/load-shedding/)</sup> and after the August 14, 2003 northeast blackout (62,000 MW lost, 50 million people affected), FERC approved 102 mandatory reliability standards in March 2007, including PRC-006 with 15 UFLS requirements.<sup>[12](https://cms-cdn.selinc.com/assets/Literature/Publications/Technical%20Papers/7006_NeedFaster_KB_20210310_Web.pdf?v=20210324-233121)</sup>\n\n## Variants\n\nUFLS is the most widely implemented form, using relays set between 57.0 Hz and 59.5 Hz on a 60 Hz grid, each threshold disconnecting a predetermined percentage of load.<sup>[2](https://technav.ieee.org/topic/load-shedding/)</sup> UVLS addresses voltage collapse by monitoring bus voltages and acting on sustained depression; coordination between UFLS and UVLS grows more important as inverter-based renewables reduce synchronous inertia.<sup>[2](https://technav.ieee.org/topic/load-shedding/)</sup> Manual load shedding is involuntary interruption of supply through manual intervention, a SCADA command, or local switching, distinct from automatic schemes.<sup>[11](https://www.aemo.com.au/-/media/files/electricity/nem/security_and_reliability/power_system_ops/manual-load-shedding-standard.pdf?la=en)</sup> Priority- and consumer-based shedding ranks loads: one wide-area distribution management scheme preferentially sheds the load with the least product of priority index and number of consumers, so more consumers stay supplied for the same deficit.<sup>[18](https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/gtd2.13240)</sup> Schemes are also classified as conventional (static), with fixed thresholds, amounts, and locations regardless of the event; semi-adaptive; and adaptive, which adjust shed amounts and thresholds in real time using EMS or PMU data.<sup>[2](https://technav.ieee.org/topic/load-shedding/)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[3](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10273701)</sup> A review of published UFLS schemes found adaptive designs predominate at 76%, conventional at 14%, and semi-adaptive at 10%.<sup>[3](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10273701)</sup>\n\n## Applications\n\nLoad shedding is deployed as the final defense in bulk power grids under NERC, ENTSO-E, and AEMO regimes; reliability Standard EOP-003-1 requires balancing authorities and transmission operators to have the capability and authority to shed load rather than risk system failure, covering automatic underfrequency and undervoltage schemes and manual plans.<sup>[1](https://www.ferc.gov/sites/default/files/2020-05/E-3_25.pdf)</sup> It also applies to islands and isolated systems, examined by C. Concordia, L.H. Fink, and G. Poullikkas in IEEE Transactions on Power Systems in 1995<sup>[19](https://doi.org/10.1109/59.466502)</sup> and addressed for small isolated power systems using rate-of-change-of-frequency by Lukas Sigrist in IEEE Transactions on Power Systems in 2014.<sup>[20](https://doi.org/10.1109/tpwrs.2014.2357218)</sup> Renewable-integrated systems are a growing application: a 2024 adaptive scheme combining UFLS and UVLS with 300 MW of battery energy storage was tested on the IEEE 39-bus system with PV injections of 250, 500, and 1,500 MW against generation losses of 800 and 1,000 MW, using a 49.10 Hz threshold.<sup>[21](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11567035/)</sup>\n\n## Limitations and alternatives\n\nUnder-shedding is the classic failure: if the curtailed load is insufficient or relay action is delayed, subsequent transmission lines and generators trip and the system can collapse.<sup>[22](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/df00/2f79688e6014ed8e786e3ded44f1dc6e93c4.pdf)</sup> In the September 8, 2011 Arizona-[Southern California](https://www.edgepedia.org/southern-california) blackout, island frequency decayed at about 2.5–3 Hz/s, all UFLS levels tripped, yet frequency fell below 57 Hz and all generation tripped, losing 7,835 MW and affecting 2.7 million people.<sup>[12](https://cms-cdn.selinc.com/assets/Literature/Publications/Technical%20Papers/7006_NeedFaster_KB_20210310_Web.pdf?v=20210324-233121)</sup> In the September 28, 2016 [South Australia](https://www.edgepedia.org/south-australia) blackout, frequency decayed at 6 Hz/s, above the 3 Hz/s UFLS design rate; all levels tripped but not in time to avoid a blackout.<sup>[12](https://cms-cdn.selinc.com/assets/Literature/Publications/Technical%20Papers/7006_NeedFaster_KB_20210310_Web.pdf?v=20210324-233121)</sup> [Measurement](https://www.edgepedia.org/measurement) inaccuracy matters: in the November 4, 2006 European incident, part of the first-step relays did not trigger because of frequency measurement inaccuracy.<sup>[23](https://hal.science/hal-01549263/file/PowerTech_2017__Under_frequency_Load_Shedding_Schemes_Characteristics_and_Performance_Criteria.pdf)</sup> Over-shedding raises post-shed over-frequency: modeling shows a scheme with 10 mHz relay dispersion can reach about 50.25 Hz after shedding, versus about 49.50 Hz for a scheme with 50 mHz dispersion, so more accurate relays raise over-frequency risk.<sup>[23](https://hal.science/hal-01549263/file/PowerTech_2017__Under_frequency_Load_Shedding_Schemes_Characteristics_and_Performance_Criteria.pdf)</sup> DER interactions add risk: inadvertent tripping of distributed energy resources after UFLS action could exacerbate an underfrequency condition, which is why IEEE 1547-2018 widened DER ride-through settings (UF2 default below 56.5 Hz, clearing times up to 1,000 s) and requires coordination with UFLS programs.<sup>[4](https://www.nerc.com/globalassets/who-we-are/standing-committees/rstc/spiderwg/recommended_approaches_for_ufls_program_design_with_increasing_penetrations_of_ders.pdf)</sup> Declining inertia is the driving challenge: low-inertia wind and solar in the Eastern Interconnection can push ROCOF toward 3 Hz/s.<sup>[12](https://cms-cdn.selinc.com/assets/Literature/Publications/Technical%20Papers/7006_NeedFaster_KB_20210310_Web.pdf?v=20210324-233121)</sup> Among alternatives, transfer-trip shedding almost always results in greater loss of load than underfrequency shedding and is generally not recommended.<sup>[8](https://pdhonline.com/courses/m513/m513content.pdf)</sup> Demand response offers a contract-based complement, subdivided into direct load control, load shedding, and brownouts in which the operator reduces voltage and frequency while sustaining supply quality within limits.<sup>[24](https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/15/6/2003)</sup>\n\n## References\n\n1. [FERC Order on Reliability Standards PRC-006-1 and EOP-003-2 (Automatic Underfrequency Load Shedding)](https://www.ferc.gov/sites/default/files/2020-05/E-3_25.pdf)\n2. [Load Shedding | IEEE Technology Navigator](https://technav.ieee.org/topic/load-shedding/)\n3. [Review of adaptive UVLS and UFLS schemes (Remedial Action Schemes) (IEEE, Dec 2023)](https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10273701)\n4. [NERC Reliability Guideline: Recommended Approaches for UFLS Program Design with Increasing Penetrations of DERs (SPIDERWG)](https://www.nerc.com/globalassets/who-we-are/standing-committees/rstc/spiderwg/recommended_approaches_for_ufls_program_design_with_increasing_penetrations_of_ders.pdf)\n5. [Under Frequency Load Shedding Requirements (AEMO, WEM Rules, June 2022)](https://www.wa.gov.au/system/files/2022-06/UFLS-Requirements.pdf)\n6. [ENTSO-E Technical Background for the Network Code on Emergency and Restoration Load Frequency Control & Demand Connection (UFLS settings recommendations)](https://eepublicdownloads.entsoe.eu/clean-documents/Network%20codes%20documents/NC%20ER/141215_Technical_background_for_LFDD.pdf)\n7. [NERC Reliability Standard PRC-006-5: Automatic Underfrequency Load Shedding](https://www.nerc.com/globalassets/standards/reliability-standards/prc/prc-006-5.pdf)\n8. [An Introduction to Power Plant Load Shedding and Cogeneration (PDH Course M513, J. Paul Guyer)](https://pdhonline.com/courses/m513/m513content.pdf)\n9. [Adaptive load shedding scheme to preserve the power system stability following large disturbances (Abedini, Sanaye-Pasand, Azizi, IET GTD 2014)](https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-gtd.2013.0937)\n10. [SERC Regional Standard PRC-006-SERC, Automatic Underfrequency Load Shedding Requirements](https://www.serc.org/docs/default-source/program-areas/standards-regional-criteria/standards-documents/prc-006-serc-03_clean.pdf?sfvrsn=c8a4a021_8)\n11. [Manual Load Shedding Standard (AEMO, National Electricity Rules)](https://www.aemo.com.au/-/media/files/electricity/nem/security_and_reliability/power_system_ops/manual-load-shedding-standard.pdf?la=en)\n12. [The Need for Faster Underfrequency Load Shedding (SEL Technical Paper, 2021)](https://cms-cdn.selinc.com/assets/Literature/Publications/Technical%20Papers/7006_NeedFaster_KB_20210310_Web.pdf?v=20210324-233121)\n13. [H. Lokay, V. Burtnyk (1968). Application of Underfrequency Relays for Automatic Load Shedding. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems.](https://doi.org/10.1109/tpas.1968.292193)\n14. [C.W. Taylor (1992). Concepts of undervoltage load shedding for voltage stability. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery.](https://doi.org/10.1109/61.127040)\n15. [D. Prasetijo, W.R. Lachs, D. Sutanto (1994). A new load shedding scheme for limiting underfrequency. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems.](https://doi.org/10.1109/59.336128)\n16. [V.V. Terzija (2006). Adaptive Underfrequency Load Shedding Based on the Magnitude of the Disturbance Estimation. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems.](https://doi.org/10.1109/tpwrs.2006.879315)\n17. [Bogdan Otomega, Thierry Van Cutsem (2007). Undervoltage Load Shedding Using Distributed Controllers. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems.](https://doi.org/10.1109/tpwrs.2007.907354)\n18. [Dynamic load shedding and system restoration using wide area distribution management system (IET GTD, 2024)](https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/gtd2.13240)\n19. [C. Concordia, L.H. Fink, G. Poullikkas (1995). Load shedding on an isolated system. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems.](https://doi.org/10.1109/59.466502)\n20. [Lukas Sigrist (2014). A UFLS Scheme for Small Isolated Power Systems Using Rate-of-Change of Frequency. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems.](https://doi.org/10.1109/tpwrs.2014.2357218)\n21. [An adaptive load shedding methodology for renewable integrated power systems (Heliyon/PMC, 2024)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11567035/)\n22. [A Survey on Power System Blackout and Cascading Events: Research Motivations and Challenges](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/df00/2f79688e6014ed8e786e3ded44f1dc6e93c4.pdf)\n23. [Under-frequency Load Shedding Schemes Characteristics and Performance Criteria (PowerTech 2017)](https://hal.science/hal-01549263/file/PowerTech_2017__Under_frequency_Load_Shedding_Schemes_Characteristics_and_Performance_Criteria.pdf)\n24. [Smart Grid, Demand Response and Optimization: A Critical Review of Computational Methods (MDPI Energies, 2022)](https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/15/6/2003)\n\n---\n*Topic: Encyclopedia › Technology and the built world › Energy technology › Grids and transmission › Grid equipment and concepts*\n\n*Initially written Sep 29, 2026 · Edited: Oct 15, 2026*\n\n*Copyright 2026 EdgeChat AI, a subsidiary of Biostate AI.*\n\nLicense: Edgepedia Community License 1.0, https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license\n",
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 "speakable": "Load shedding is the deliberate, preplanned dropping of electrical load in stages, triggered by falling frequency, to keep a power system stable and prevent a total blackout."
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