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 "slug": "space-vector-modulation",
 "title": "Space vector modulation",
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 "excerpt": "Space vector modulation (SVM) is a pulse-width modulation technique for three-phase inverters, yielding about 15% more output voltage than sinusoidal PWM from the same DC supply.",
 "snippet": "Space vector modulation (SVM) is a pulse-width modulation technique for three-phase inverters, yielding about 15% more output voltage than sinusoidal PWM from the same DC supply.",
 "node": "technology.energy.energy.fuels.alpha-in-to-w.alpha-ro-to-w",
 "markdown": "# Space vector modulation\n\nSpace vector modulation (SVM) is a pulse-width modulation technique for three-phase voltage-source inverters that represents each switching state as a voltage vector in a two-dimensional αβ plane and selects vectors each switching period to synthesize a desired output voltage. Compared with sinusoidal PWM, the maximum rms line-to-line and phase output voltages reach \\( V_{dc}/\\sqrt{2} \\) and \\( V_{dc}/\\sqrt{6} \\), which is \\( 2/\\sqrt{3} \\), about 15%, higher than sinusoidal PWM generates from the same DC supply.<sup>[1](https://www.ti.com/lit/an/spra524/spra524.pdf)</sup> DC voltage utilization is 1.155 pu versus 1.0 pu for sinusoidal PWM, with flexibility in pulse placement that allows switching losses to be optimized, and the algorithm suits real-time digital implementation.<sup>[2](https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/59415/1/Li_etal_RESD_2016_Comparative_study_of_modulation_techniques_for_two_level_voltage.pdf)</sup> SVM can equally be regarded as a carrier-based technique with triple harmonics added to the reference waveforms.<sup>[3](https://web.iitd.ac.in/~amitjain/SVPWM_VTR.pdf)</sup> SVM generates the PWM signals for the inverter switches in field-oriented control of induction motors and permanent-magnet synchronous machines.<sup>[4](https://uk.mathworks.com/discovery/space-vector-modulation.html)</sup>\n\n| Key fact | Value |\n|---|---|\n| Switching states of a two-level inverter | Six active vectors (V1–V6) 60° apart forming a hexagon, plus two zero vectors V0 [000] and V7 [111]<sup>[1](https://www.ti.com/lit/an/spra524/spra524.pdf)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[5](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7390/12/18/2832)</sup> |\n| Linear modulation limit | \\( m = 2/\\sqrt{3} \\approx 1.15 \\), about 15% more fundamental voltage than sinusoidal PWM<sup>[6](https://ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/appnotes/00955a.pdf)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[2](https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/59415/1/Li_etal_RESD_2016_Comparative_study_of_modulation_techniques_for_two_level_voltage.pdf)</sup> |\n| Dwell-time principle | Volt-seconds of two adjacent vectors plus a zero vector match the reference vector along the α and β axes<sup>[6](https://ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/appnotes/00955a.pdf)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[3](https://web.iitd.ac.in/~amitjain/SVPWM_VTR.pdf)</sup> |\n| Zero-vector apportioning (CSVPWM) | \\( T_{0} = T_{7} = 0.5\\,T_{z} \\)<sup>[7](https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/sadh/038/03/0331-0358)</sup> |\n| Common-mode voltage | Up to \\( \\pm V_{DC}/2 \\), produced by the zero vectors<sup>[8](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136403212100040X)</sup> |\n| Typical use | PWM generation for inverter switches in field-oriented motor control<sup>[4](https://uk.mathworks.com/discovery/space-vector-modulation.html)</sup> |\n\n## How it works\n\nA Clarke transformation (math converting three-phase voltages into two-axis coordinates) maps the three-phase reference voltages into the stationary αβ plane, where the desired output is a single rotating reference vector. A two-level inverter has eight allowed combinations of the three upper switch states: the six non-zero basic space vectors form the axes of a hexagon with 60° between adjacent vectors, and the two zero vectors sit at the origin.<sup>[1](https://www.ti.com/lit/an/spra524/spra524.pdf)</sup> Of these, six are active voltage vectors (V1–V6) and two are zero-output vectors.<sup>[5](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7390/12/18/2832)</sup>\n\nWithin each PWM period the inverter applies the two basic vectors adjacent to the reference for durations \\( T_{1} \\) and \\( T_{2} \\), and rests in a zero state (000 or 111) for the remainder, so the average output approximates the reference vector \\( U_{out} \\).<sup>[1](https://www.ti.com/lit/an/spra524/spra524.pdf)</sup> The subintervals are calculated so that the volt-seconds produced along the α and β axes equal those of the reference vector.<sup>[3](https://web.iitd.ac.in/~amitjain/SVPWM_VTR.pdf)</sup> Because SVM works with line-to-line voltages, deals with all phases simultaneously, and avoids any triangular carrier, it provides more flexibility than phase-voltage modulation methods.<sup>[9](https://merl.com/publications/docs/TR2015-048.pdf)</sup> It can be demonstrated that SVPWM is equivalent to sinusoidal PWM with min/max (triplen zero-sequence) injection; the superimposed third-harmonic component cancels in the line-to-line output, boosting it to the full DC link.<sup>[10](https://imperix.com/doc/implementation/svpwm-vs-spwm-modulation-techniques)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[11](https://doi.org/10.1080/03772063.2006.11416484)</sup>\n\n## How it is done\n\nThe computation per switching period has three steps. First, the sector of the hexagon containing the reference is found, for example from \\( N = \\mathrm{sign}(v_{ref1}) + 2 \\cdot \\mathrm{sign}(v_{ref2}) + 4 \\cdot \\mathrm{sign}(v_{ref3}) \\) with a lookup table mapping N to the sector.<sup>[1](https://www.ti.com/lit/an/spra524/spra524.pdf)</sup> Second, the dwell times \\( T_{A} \\), \\( T_{B} \\) and \\( T_{0/7} \\) are calculated so the average volt-seconds of V1, V2, and the zero state along the X and Y axes match the reference vector \\( V_{S} \\).<sup>[6](https://ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/appnotes/00955a.pdf)</sup> Conventional space vector PWM divides the zero-vector time equally, \\( T_{0} = T_{7} = 0.5\\,T_{z} \\).<sup>[7](https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/sadh/038/03/0331-0358)</sup> Third, the times are arranged into a switching sequence: the zero interval is split into two equal halves placed at the beginning and end of the sampling interval, giving the sequence 0-1-2-7-7-2-1-0, which minimizes switchings.<sup>[3](https://web.iitd.ac.in/~amitjain/SVPWM_VTR.pdf)</sup> This seven-segment reversing alternating sequence is the most commonly implemented pattern.<sup>[12](https://e-university.tu-sofia.bg/e-publ/files/8376_29_29_valentin-totev_R2_edit_new.pdf)</sup> Switching rules keep the trajectory of \\( V_{S} \\) circular, allow only one switching per state transition, and permit no more than three switchings per sampling period.<sup>[6](https://ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/appnotes/00955a.pdf)</sup>\n\n## Origin\n\nThe term \"space vector\" is of European origin, building on R. H. Park's 1929 two-reaction (d-q) theory.<sup>[13](https://developerhelp.microchip.com/xwiki/bin/view/applications/motors/control-algorithms/zsm/svm/)</sup> Precursors in the published literature are A. Schonung's 1964 sine-triangle PWM paper in the Brown Boveri review and M. Depenbrock's 1977 pulse-width control of a three-phase inverter with non-sinusoidal phase voltages. Microchip's technical documentation credits a 1986 conference paper by van der Broeck, Skudelny, and Stanke, later published in IEEE Transactions in 1988, with the \"optimal\" SVM that divides the zero-vector time equally between (0,0,0) and (1,1,1) and uses center-aligned symmetric PWM; that technique is more precisely called Conventional Space Vector PWM (CSVPWM), and the van der Broeck paper has been cited by over 600 motor-control papers.<sup>[13](https://developerhelp.microchip.com/xwiki/bin/view/applications/motors/control-algorithms/zsm/svm/)</sup> Later work formalized the method's connections and boundaries: Varma and Narayanan (2006) showed space vector PWM as a modified form of sine-triangle PWM for simple analog or digital implementation,<sup>[11](https://doi.org/10.1080/03772063.2006.11416484)</sup> and Holtz, Lotzkat, and Khambadkone (1993) developed continuous control of PWM inverters in the overmodulation range including the six-step mode.<sup>[14](https://doi.org/10.1109/63.261026)</sup>\n\n## Variants\n\n**Discontinuous (bus-clamped) SVM** spends the entire zero-vector time on one zero state, so the number of switchings falls to 2/3 of conventional SVM (four per PWM period) and the lowest-order harmonic moves to a frequency 50% higher, at some cost in harmonic and loss performance.<sup>[3](https://web.iitd.ac.in/~amitjain/SVPWM_VTR.pdf)</sup> In DPWM one phase is clamped per sample so only two phases switch.<sup>[15](https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-pel.2012.0405)</sup> Ojo (2004) presented the generalized discontinuous PWM scheme for three-phase voltage source inverters.<sup>[16](https://doi.org/10.1109/tie.2004.837919)</sup> For three-level inverters, four basic types (DPWM I–IV) extend the two-level concepts, and a DPWM 0 sequence serves the low-modulation region (m < 0.433); DPWM 0 is preferred at low modulation index with light, highly lagging or leading loads, while DPWM II is the most preferred choice for induction motor drives at higher loads.<sup>[15](https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-pel.2012.0405)</sup>\n\n**Reduced common-mode voltage variants** avoid the zero vectors, which produce the largest CMV, as high as \\( \\pm V_{DC}/2 \\); the family comprises active zero-state PWM (AZS-PWM), remote-state PWM (RS-PWM), and near-state PWM (NS-PWM).<sup>[8](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136403212100040X)</sup> In a published nine-technique comparison, AZSPWM achieved a 66.66% CMV reduction versus continuous SVPWM, and DSVPWM-K3 delivered the best overall combination of CMV, THD and losses.<sup>[5](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7390/12/18/2832)</sup>\n\n**Overmodulation SVM** extends operation beyond the linear range, where the modulation relationship becomes non-linear for \\( m > 2/\\sqrt{3} \\).<sup>[7](https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/sadh/038/03/0331-0358)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[14](https://doi.org/10.1109/63.261026)</sup>\n\n**Three-level and multilevel SVM** builds on the neutral-point-clamped topology introduced in a 1981 IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications paper by Nabae, Takahashi, and Akagi.<sup>[17](https://doi.org/10.1109/tia.1981.4503992)</sup> A three-level inverter has 27 switching states<sup>[18](https://www.ti.com/lit/an/sprabs6/sprabs6.pdf)</sup> corresponding to 19 base vectors (6 large, 6 medium, 6 small, and 1 zero), with the reference synthesized from the three nearest base vectors by volt-second balance.<sup>[19](https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/10/2452)</sup> Three-level SVPWM reduces to the two-level case by dividing the diagram into six main sectors and mapping vectors into a subhexagon.<sup>[18](https://www.ti.com/lit/an/sprabs6/sprabs6.pdf)</sup> Beig, Narayanan, and Ranganathan (2007) developed a modified SVPWM for three-level inverters with synchronized and symmetrical waveforms.<sup>[20](https://doi.org/10.1109/tie.2006.888801)</sup> A generalized scheme computes all states, duty cycles, and sequences through two simple mappings, treating any level number as a two-level problem without a lookup table.<sup>[21](https://www.merl.com/publications/docs/TR2013-131.pdf)</sup>\n\n**Minimum-loss and hybrid PWM** restricts switching to two phases at any time, cutting switching losses by one-third since one phase does not switch for one-third of the electrical cycle.<sup>[22](https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-pel.2013.0423)</sup> Minimum switching loss PWM reduces losses by up to 36% at power factors near unity versus CSVPWM, and hybrid PWM techniques cut harmonic distortion by up to about 40% near 50 Hz fundamental.<sup>[23](https://etd.iisc.ac.in/handle/2005/868)</sup>\n\n## Applications\n\nWith common-mode injection the modulation relationship is linear up to \\( m = 2/\\sqrt{3} \\) and non-linear beyond, whereas [SPWM](https://www.edgepedia.org/sinusoidal-pulse-width-modulation) is linear only up to \\( m = 1 \\).<sup>[7](https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/sadh/038/03/0331-0358)</sup> SVPWM utilizes \\( \\sqrt{3}/2 \\) of the DC bus voltage versus 3/4 for SPWM, with lower harmonic distortion and reduced switching losses but a higher computational burden.<sup>[12](https://e-university.tu-sofia.bg/e-publ/files/8376_29_29_valentin-totev_R2_edit_new.pdf)</sup> In a three-phase comparison at equal switching frequency, SVM produced a weighted THD of 1.35% at maximum linear output, while selective harmonic elimination reached 1.24% and was judged best overall, but SHE requires off-line lookup-table implementation whereas SVM supports on-line real-time computation.<sup>[2](https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/59415/1/Li_etal_RESD_2016_Comparative_study_of_modulation_techniques_for_two_level_voltage.pdf)</sup> At modulation indices below 0.4, SVM shows no marked harmonic superiority over sine-triangle PWM.<sup>[3](https://web.iitd.ac.in/~amitjain/SVPWM_VTR.pdf)</sup>\n\nConventional SVM's use of all switching states produces large CMV variation, up to \\( \\pm V_{DC}/2 \\), so reduced-CMV SVPWM schemes are used in drives; in an asymmetrical dual three-phase drive, such a scheme cut peak CMV to one-sixth of the DC link voltage while line current THD rose from 2.1% to 3.8%.<sup>[24](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-48339-3)</sup> Discontinuous SVM for three-level Vienna rectifiers improves waveform quality, lowers switching losses, and shrinks AC-side passive components and EMI filters.<sup>[25](https://www.ams-publications.ee.ethz.ch/uploads/tx_ethpublications/dalessandro_IEEETrans_VR1diskont.pdf)</sup>\n\n## Limitations and alternatives\n\nBeyond \\( m = 2/\\sqrt{3} \\) the modulation relationship is non-linear, so overmodulation requires dedicated algorithms.<sup>[7](https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/sadh/038/03/0331-0358)</sup> The added zero-sequence signal raises CMV levels compared with pure sinusoidal PWM.<sup>[8](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136403212100040X)</sup> In hardware-implemented patterns, dead band imbalance can cause small harmonics in the line-to-line outputs because a channel may stay unchanged for a long duration.<sup>[1](https://www.ti.com/lit/an/spra524/spra524.pdf)</sup> SVM is also more computationally intensive than SPWM,<sup>[12](https://e-university.tu-sofia.bg/e-publ/files/8376_29_29_valentin-totev_R2_edit_new.pdf)</sup> although a minimum-loss variant executes in 147 [instruction cycles](https://www.edgepedia.org/instruction-cycle) versus 189 for a generalized SVPWM, only 2.6% of the PWM interrupt time at 20 kHz switching on a 150 MHz DSP.<sup>[22](https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-pel.2013.0423)</sup>\n\n## References\n\n1. [Space-Vector PWM with TMS320C24x Using Hardware and Software Determined Switching](https://www.ti.com/lit/an/spra524/spra524.pdf)\n2. [Comparative Study of Modulation Techniques for Two-Level Voltage Source Inverters](https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/59415/1/Li_etal_RESD_2016_Comparative_study_of_modulation_techniques_for_two_level_voltage.pdf)\n3. [Space vector pulsewidth modulation, A status review](https://web.iitd.ac.in/~amitjain/SVPWM_VTR.pdf)\n4. [Space Vector Modulation - MATLAB & Simulink](https://uk.mathworks.com/discovery/space-vector-modulation.html)\n5. [Comparative Analysis of Space Vector Pulse-Width Modulation Techniques of Three-Phase Inverter to Minimize Common Mode Voltage and/or Switching Losses](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7390/12/18/2832)\n6. [AN955, VF Control of 3-Phase Induction Motor Using Space Vector Modulation](https://ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/appnotes/00955a.pdf)\n7. [Analysis of triangle-comparison based PWM techniques during overmodulation from a space vector point of view](https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/sadh/038/03/0331-0358)\n8. [Advanced power inverter topologies and modulation techniques for common-mode voltage elimination in electric motor drive systems](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136403212100040X)\n9. [A Simplified Space Vector Modulation Scheme for Multilevel Converters](https://merl.com/publications/docs/TR2015-048.pdf)\n10. [SVPWM vs SPWM modulation techniques (TN146)](https://imperix.com/doc/implementation/svpwm-vs-spwm-modulation-techniques)\n11. [P Srikant Varma, G Narayanan (2006). Space Vector PWM as a Modified Form of Sine-Triangle PWM for Simple Analog or Digital Implementation. IETE Journal of Research.](https://doi.org/10.1080/03772063.2006.11416484)\n12. [Modelling of Space Vector Pulse-Width Modulation for Electric Vehicle Application](https://e-university.tu-sofia.bg/e-publ/files/8376_29_29_valentin-totev_R2_edit_new.pdf)\n13. [Space Vector Modulation - Developer Help (Microchip)](https://developerhelp.microchip.com/xwiki/bin/view/applications/motors/control-algorithms/zsm/svm/)\n14. [J. Holtz, W. Lotzkat, A.M. Khambadkone (1993). On continuous control of PWM inverters in the overmodulation range including the six-step mode. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics.](https://doi.org/10.1109/63.261026)\n15. [Space vector-based three-level discontinuous pulse-width modulation algorithm](https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-pel.2012.0405)\n16. [O. Ojo (2004). The Generalized Discontinuous PWM Scheme for Three-Phase Voltage Source Inverters. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics.](https://doi.org/10.1109/tie.2004.837919)\n17. [Akira Nabae, Isao Takahashi, Hirofumi Akagi (1981). A New Neutral-Point-Clamped PWM Inverter. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications.](https://doi.org/10.1109/tia.1981.4503992)\n18. [Center-Aligned Space Vector PWM Realization for 3 Phase 3 Level Inverter](https://www.ti.com/lit/an/sprabs6/sprabs6.pdf)\n19. [An Improved Space Vector PWM Algorithm with a Seven-Stage Switching Sequence for Three-Level Neutral Point Clamped Voltage Source Inverters](https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/10/2452)\n20. [Abdul Rahiman Beig, G. Narayanan, V. T. Ranganathan (2007). Modified SVPWM Algorithm for Three Level VSI With Synchronized and Symmetrical Waveforms. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics.](https://doi.org/10.1109/tie.2006.888801)\n21. [A Fast and Generalized Space Vector Modulation Scheme for Multilevel Inverters](https://www.merl.com/publications/docs/TR2013-131.pdf)\n22. [Fast minimum loss space vector pulse-width modulation algorithm for multilevel inverters](https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-pel.2013.0423)\n23. [Comparative Evaluation of Space Vector Based PWM Techniques in Terms of Harmonic Distortion and Switching Loss](https://etd.iisc.ac.in/handle/2005/868)\n24. [Modified SVPWM technique for CMV reduction in asymmetrical dual three phase induction machine drive](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-48339-3)\n25. [Discontinuous Space-Vector Modulation for Three-Level Rectifiers (IEEE Transactions)](https://www.ams-publications.ee.ethz.ch/uploads/tx_ethpublications/dalessandro_IEEETrans_VR1diskont.pdf)\n\n---\n*Topic: Encyclopedia › Technology and the built world › Energy technology › Fuels and conversion technology › Titles In to W › Titles Ro to W*\n\n*Initially written Sep 29, 2026 · Edited: Oct 15, 2026*\n\n*Copyright 2026 EdgeChat AI, a subsidiary of Biostate AI.*\n\nLicense: Edgepedia Community License 1.0, https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license\n",
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 "speakable": "Space vector modulation is a pulse-width modulation technique for three-phase inverters, yielding about 15% more output voltage than sinusoidal PWM from the same DC supply."
}