# Casuarina equisetifolia
**Casuarina equisetifolia** (L.) is an evergreen flowering tree of the family [Casuarinaceae](https://www.edgepedia.org/casuarinaceae), native to sandy tropical coasts from India to the western Pacific, whose jointed green branchlets and woody cone-like fruits make it look like a pine or horsetail while it is neither. It is one of the most extensively planted exotic trees in tropical and subtropical littoral zones of Asia, the Pacific, Africa, and [Central America](https://www.edgepedia.org/central-america), valued as a nitrogen-fixing windbreak, dune stabilizer, and fuelwood producer, and simultaneously listed as a prohibited noxious weed in Florida, where it was introduced in the 1880s and is regarded by some as the most invasive species in the region.[1](https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/legacy/node/560/tr58-web.pdf) • [2](https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/casuarina-equisetifolia) • [3](https://assessment.ifas.ufl.edu/assessments/casuarina-equisetifolia/)
| Key fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Family and scope | Casuarinaceae, 96 species in four genera (Allocasuarina, Casuarina, Ceuthostoma, Gymnostoma); Casuarina has 17 species with karyotypes 2n = 18[4](https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.16201) |
| Native range | India to the western Pacific, on a narrow strip of sandy coast from sea level to 100 m[5](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:159856-1) • [1](https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/legacy/node/560/tr58-web.pdf) |
| Growth | 1.5–3 m per year; young natural stands have produced up to 16.6 t/ha of aboveground dry biomass per year[2](https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/casuarina-equisetifolia) • [6](https://research.fs.usda.gov/silvics/casuarina) |
| Fuelwood quality | Wood calorific value up to 5000 kcal/kg, charcoal more than 7000 kcal/kg; wood density about 0.72[7](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301479713003290) • [6](https://research.fs.usda.gov/silvics/casuarina) |
| Nitrogen fixation | Estimated 60 kg/ha/yr for established stands (Dommergues 1963), or 90 kg/ha/yr at 2000 trees/ha by another estimate[8](https://winrock.org/factnet/fact-net-fact-sheets/difficult-sites-are-home-to-casuarina/) • [9](https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/Economic/casuarina_equisetifolia.pdf) |
| Plantation economics | India holds about 800,000 ha of plantations; irrigated stands yield 100–150 t of air-dried wood per hectare in a 4-year rotation[10](https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2303_41494166) |
| Invasive status | Prohibited in Florida under the Federal Noxious Weed List and FDACS rules; removal costs about $370/ha[3](https://assessment.ifas.ufl.edu/assessments/casuarina-equisetifolia/) • [11](https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/33272/Gaskin_243079.pdf) |
| Conservation | Assessed as Least Concern by IUCN, with a large suspected population and no major threats in its native range[12](https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/16728404/16728408) |
## Description and naming
The tree's conifer-like appearance is superficial. Its photosynthetic foliage consists of slender, much-branched green to gray-green, jointed, grooved twigs 0.5–1 mm in diameter, bearing scale-leaves that appear as tiny pointed teeth about 1 mm long ringing each twig joint; the true leaves are reduced to these scales, and the twigs do the photosynthesizing. The result is a horsetail-like silhouette, which gives the species epithet *equisetifolia*, "with leaves like a horsetail". The genus name comes from the Malayan *pohon kasuari* (cassowary tree), because the branches resemble the feathers of the cassowary. The common name Australian pine is a misnomer, as the tree is not a pine, though its woody fruiting structures resemble small conifer cones.[2](https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/casuarina-equisetifolia) • [22](https://ask.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FR366)
Casuarinaceae comprises 96 species in four genera: Allocasuarina, [Casuarina](https://www.edgepedia.org/casuarina), Ceuthostoma, and Gymnostoma.[4](https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.16201) Two subspecies of *C. equisetifolia* are recognized (Wilson and Johnson 1989): subsp. *incana*, a shorter tree of 6–10 m from Vanuatu and coastal [Queensland](https://www.edgepedia.org/queensland) and [New South Wales](https://www.edgepedia.org/new-south-wales), and subsp. *equisetifolia*, the tall, widely distributed coastal form of 8–35 m.[1](https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/legacy/node/560/tr58-web.pdf) Kew's Plants of the World Online accepts the same two subspecies.[5](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:159856-1) A chromosome-scale genome assembly reports a genome size of 268,942,579 bp with 23,162 protein-coding genes for *C. equisetifolia*, against 296,631,783 bp and 24,673 genes for *C. glauca* and 293,483,606 bp and 24,674 genes for *C. cunninghamiana*.[4](https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.16201)
## Distribution and habitat
Kew records the native range as India to the western Pacific, a tree of the wet tropical biome.[5](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:159856-1) In its natural range the species is confined to a narrow strip adjacent to sandy coasts, usually from sea level to 100 m, on sands 2 m or more deep; it tolerates salt spray and calcareous soils but is intolerant of waterlogging. The climate is hot and humid to subhumid, frost-free, with 700–4000 mm annual rainfall and often a 6–8 month dry season.[1](https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/legacy/node/560/tr58-web.pdf) The IUCN assessment lists native occurrence across Southeast Asia and Oceania, including Tuvalu, Vanuatu, French Polynesia, the [Marshall Islands](https://www.edgepedia.org/marshall-islands), Palau, and the Northern Marianas, and assesses the species as Least Concern.[12](https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/16728404/16728408)
Outside its native range it has been introduced worldwide as an ornamental, dune stabilizer, windbreak, and reforestation species, and has become highly invasive on humid tropical and subtropical beaches; it is now one of the most common trees on frost-free beaches worldwide.[14](https://bugwoodcloud.org/CDN/fleppc/publications/Casuarinamgmntplan_FINAL-05-13-13.pdf) • [2](https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/casuarina-equisetifolia) In the United States, three Casuarina species are established, primarily in Hawaii, California, and Florida; *C. equisetifolia* is naturalized in Florida as far north as Tampa and Titusville and is particularly prevalent on beaches.[6](https://research.fs.usda.gov/silvics/casuarina) In Florida it occurs predominantly south of Orlando because it is sensitive to extended periods of freezing temperatures.[14](https://bugwoodcloud.org/CDN/fleppc/publications/Casuarinamgmntplan_FINAL-05-13-13.pdf) The University of Florida IFAS assessment lists it as Prohibited under the Federal Noxious Weed List and FDACS noxious weed rules 5B-64.011 and 5B-57.007.[3](https://assessment.ifas.ufl.edu/assessments/casuarina-equisetifolia/)
## Biology and ecology
**Nitrogen fixation.** Seedling development depends partly on the filamentous actinomycete *Frankia*, which fixes atmospheric nitrogen in root nodules; nursery practice inoculates seedlings with a 10 percent suspension of ground root nodules in water.[6](https://research.fs.usda.gov/silvics/casuarina) Both the tree and the *Frankia* strain Ceq1 isolated from its root nodules are highly salt tolerant, which makes the symbiotic system useful for afforestation of saline sites.[15](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2003.10410000) Estimated fixation rates for established stands are given below.
**Reproduction.** Flowering occurs principally from April to June with wind-pollinated female flowers; the gray-brown multiple fruits, 8–15 mm in diameter, ripen September through December and release wind-dispersed samaras 3–8 mm long. Seed bearing begins by age 5 with good seed crops annually, and germination is epigeal and good on moist bare soil.[6](https://research.fs.usda.gov/silvics/casuarina) The ACIAR monograph describes male inflorescences as terminal spikes 7–40 mm long, cones 10–24 mm long and 9–13 mm in diameter, and a winged samara 6–8 mm long.[1](https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/legacy/node/560/tr58-web.pdf) The fruits are small flattened winged nuts in cone-like clusters that split open when ripe; the Scaly-Breasted Munia is one of very few birds observed feeding on the seeds.[13](https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/7/2793)
**Stress tolerance.** Salinity tolerance relies mainly on sequestering excess Na+ into vacuoles and induced expression of NHX and SOS genes in roots, maintaining sufficient K+ content in shoots.[16](http://bp.ueb.cas.cz/artkey/bpl-201803-0010_physiological-adaptation-and-gene-expression-analysis-of-casuarina-equisetifolia-under-salt-stress.php) The species endures extreme drought, intense light and elevated salinity, including seawater atomization and encroachment from typhoons, which is why it is vital for windbreaks and sand stabilization in southeastern coastal Asia and the tropical Americas.[17](https://bmcplantbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12870-024-05561-z)
**Invasive impacts.** Where it naturalizes, its fast growth, prolific seeding and thick litter impede native plant establishment, increase beach erosion, and interfere with the nesting of endangered sea turtles and crocodiles.[14](https://bugwoodcloud.org/CDN/fleppc/publications/Casuarinamgmntplan_FINAL-05-13-13.pdf) Australian pine invasion threatens nest sites of the endangered [American crocodile](https://www.edgepedia.org/american-crocodile), loggerhead turtle and gopher tortoise, and creates sterile foraging and breeding environments for small mammals.[18](https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/casspp/all.html) Tannins in sheoak leaves are carcinogenic and can be fatal to foraging cattle.[18](https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/casspp/all.html) The trees form dense roots that deplete soil moisture and break water and sewer lines, and they are susceptible to hurricane windthrow.[18](https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/casspp/all.html)
## Uses and cultivation
Casuarina is used in the reclamation of salt-affected land, as windbreaks, for the stabilization of sand dunes, and for the production of firewood and timber.[7](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301479713003290) It has been called the best firewood in the world: the wood is very dense, splits easily, burns when green, has low ash content and makes excellent charcoal.[8](https://winrock.org/factnet/fact-net-fact-sheets/difficult-sites-are-home-to-casuarina/) Sheoak wood also serves as poles, posts, beams, shingles, paneling, fence rails, furniture, marine pilings, tool handles, and cabinets, though it is subject to cracking and splitting.[18](https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/casspp/all.html) The bark is used medicinally to treat dysentery and diarrhea and twigs as a wash for beri beri.[13](https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/7/2793)
In coastal shelter forests the species protects farmland and houses from natural disasters such as wind erosion and tsunamis.[19](https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/2/233) In Senegal, a green barrier of *C. equisetifolia* was established on the northern Atlantic fringe between Dakar and Saint-Louis to stabilize sand dunes and protect the vegetable- and fruit-producing "Niayes" area.[20](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006599/)
**Plantation geography.** India is the largest Casuarina-producing country, with approximately 800,000 hectares of plantations, about 500,000 ha of them in [Andhra Pradesh](https://www.edgepedia.org/andhra-pradesh), Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and Puducherry.[10](https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2303_41494166) Earlier national estimates include 300,000 ha in southern China (1996), 500,000 ha in India (1998) and 120,000 ha in Vietnam (1996); introductions to India and Vietnam date back more than a century.[1](https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/legacy/node/560/tr58-web.pdf) In India the species was introduced from Australia in the second half of the nineteenth century, originally planted at Karwar during 1868–69 to fuel steam locomotives, and has spread along the coasts of [Tamil Nadu](https://www.edgepedia.org/tamil-nadu), Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Kerala, Maharashtra, and [Karnataka](https://www.edgepedia.org/karnataka).[21](https://ifgtbenvis.in/build/publication/Casuarina.pdf) In Florida, by contrast, the tree is a prohibited species and is not used in commercial applications in the state.[22](https://ask.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FR366)
## By the numbers
Growth and yield figures vary with site and management. Young natural stands have produced total aboveground dry biomass yields as high as 16.6 t/ha per year at densities up to 11,400 trees per hectare, averaging 4.3 cm d.b.h. at an estimated age of 7.5 years; seedling growth can exceed 2 m in the first year, height increments exceeding 1.5 m/yr are common, and planted survival averages over 87 percent.[6](https://research.fs.usda.gov/silvics/casuarina) In peninsular India, 7–15 year rotations yield 100–200 tons of fuelwood per hectare, and 7.5-year-old stands in Florida reached up to 17 dry t/ha/yr.[8](https://winrock.org/factnet/fact-net-fact-sheets/difficult-sites-are-home-to-casuarina/)
**Plantation yields and income.** Plantations with irrigation and fertilizer at 1 m × 1 m spacing produce 100 to 150 tons of air-dried wood per hectare in 4 years; rainfed average yield is 75–100 t/ha in 6 years.[10](https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2303_41494166) With plants spaced 2 m apart on a 7–10-year rotation, trees may yield 75–200 MT of wood per hectare, or 10–20 MT/ha/yr, with fuelwood the main economic product.[9](https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/Economic/casuarina_equisetifolia.pdf) The average net income from irrigated plantations is Rs 227,000 per hectare over a four-year rotation; rainfed plantations achieve the same income in 6–7 years, and each hectare also yields 5–7 tons of wood in branches, tops and roots.[10](https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2303_41494166) At harvest the average tree is 12 m tall with 25 cm girth, and the best trees reach 20 m and 50 cm girth.[10](https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2303_41494166)
**Wood and energy values.** Wood density is approximately 0.72, among the highest for Florida trees; green wood moisture content is 60–88 percent on an ovendry basis and ash content averages about 2 percent. Attempts to saw and season casuarina for lumber have not been satisfactory.[6](https://research.fs.usda.gov/silvics/casuarina) The calorific value of the wood is up to 5000 kcal/kg and that of its charcoal more than 7000 kcal/kg.[7](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301479713003290)
**Nitrogen fixation.** Annual nitrogen-fixing rates for established stands have been estimated near 60 kg/ha (Dommergues 1963).[8](https://winrock.org/factnet/fact-net-fact-sheets/difficult-sites-are-home-to-casuarina/) A separate estimate gives 90 kg/ha of atmospheric nitrogen fixed annually at a planting density of 2000 trees/ha.[9](https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/Economic/casuarina_equisetifolia.pdf)
## How it compares with other casuarinas and coastal plantings
Three Casuarina species occur in Florida (*C. cunninghamiana*, *C. equisetifolia*, *C. glauca*); all fix nitrogen via actinorhizal nodules with *Frankia* and all are misnamed "Australian pine".[22](https://ask.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FR366) The species differ in habitat and hardiness. *C. cunninghamiana*, the most cold-hardy species, is planted in citrus groves for cold protection; *C. glauca* is highly salt tolerant and invades riverine habitats, while *C. equisetifolia* is highly salt tolerant but cold intolerant, limiting it to south Florida coastal environments.[18](https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/casspp/all.html) • [11](https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/33272/Gaskin_243079.pdf) • [22](https://ask.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FR366) A review of salt tolerance ranks the species in decreasing order as *C. obesa* > *C. glauca* > *C. equisetifolia* > *C. cunninghamiana* > *C. cristata* (Van der Moezel et al. 1989; Marcar 1996), and notes that salt-tolerance rankings do not align with sodicity tolerance.[23](https://doi.org/10.1080/13416979.2022.2036416) Some African and Asian countries plant casuarina to combat desertification.[18](https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/casspp/all.html)
## Pests, biocontrol and management
Casuarina wilt caused by the *Ralstonia solanacearum* species complex has seen large-scale outbreaks in the coastal regions of Guangdong Province, China, where originally resistant clones became susceptible to infection.[24](https://scijournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ps.8822) The IUCN assessment also notes local losses to blister bark disease in some countries, and concern that genetic resources are being lost without active conservation.[12](https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/16728404/16728408)
In Florida, control methods include approved herbicide applications, felling with stump treatment or grinding, mowing, and hand removal of saplings; biological controls remain in developmental stages, including searches and preliminary screening of prospective agents.[14](https://bugwoodcloud.org/CDN/fleppc/publications/Casuarinamgmntplan_FINAL-05-13-13.pdf) Removal from conservation lands costs about $370/ha and offers only temporary control, requiring follow-up monitoring and repeated applications; casuarinas rank among the top five upland invasive species targeted for herbicidal treatment, and post-treatment monitoring is needed for at least 3 years because seeds remain viable on the ground for 2–2.5 years.[11](https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/33272/Gaskin_243079.pdf) Cutting alone often induces sprouting, so it is not an effective control method.[18](https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/casspp/all.html) A 1988 Nature Conservancy report concluded that managing the species in [Everglades National Park](https://www.edgepedia.org/everglades-national-park) was no longer financially feasible.[22](https://ask.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FR366)
## What has changed since 2023
Recent work has added genomic and biological detail. Chromosome-scale genome assemblies for three representative Casuarina species (2023–24) established the genome sizes and gene counts above and, in *C. equisetifolia*, whole-genome bisulfite sequencing and RNA-seq of male and female branchlets revealed differential expression of phytohormone-related genes linked to sex determination.[4](https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.16201) A 2024 multi-omics study of ssp. *incana* seedlings under seawater atomization and encroachment stress identified 737–3,899 differentially expressed genes and 46–66 differentially accumulated metabolites, with stronger responses to seawater encroachment.[17](https://bmcplantbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12870-024-05561-z) A 2025 study found that a *Bacillus velezensis* endophyte (strain A1-5) and a three-species biocontrol combination effectively controlled *R. pseudosolanacearum* infections, with the active compound identified as surfactin C.[24](https://scijournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ps.8822) Also in 2025, growth decline of the species in continuous planting systems was linked to an AHL-driven cascade involving rhizosphere microbes, enzymes, and nutrients.[25](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhisph.2025.101086) For management, a 2023 study developed UAV-based individual tree and tree-height detection for maintaining coastal shelter forests of the species.[19](https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/2/233)
## Disputed points
Credible sources disagree on several specifics. On maximum height, Oregon State's database gives 20–45 m while the IUCN assessment gives a potential of 50 m but a general 15–25 m.[2](https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/casuarina-equisetifolia) • [12](https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/16728404/16728408) On the sexual system, Oregon State describes the species as monoecious, with male spikes and female flowers on the same tree, while the ACIAR provenance-trial monograph describes trees as predominantly dioecious.[2](https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/casuarina-equisetifolia) • [1](https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/legacy/node/560/tr58-web.pdf) On nitrogen fixation, the 60 and 90 kg/ha/yr estimates above remain unreconciled. On family size, one review counts approximately 86 species and 13 subspecies while the genome paper and an Indian forestry publication count 96 species.[7](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301479713003290) • [4](https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.16201) • [21](https://ifgtbenvis.in/build/publication/Casuarina.pdf)
## References
1. [Provenance Trials of Casuarina equisetifolia, ACIAR Technical Reports](https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/legacy/node/560/tr58-web.pdf)
2. [Casuarina equisetifolia, Landscape Plants, Oregon State University](https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/casuarina-equisetifolia)
3. [Casuarina equisetifolia, UF/IFAS Assessment, University of Florida](https://assessment.ifas.ufl.edu/assessments/casuarina-equisetifolia/)
4. [Chromosome-scale de novo genome assembly and annotation of three representative Casuarina species, The Plant Journal](https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.16201)
5. [Casuarina equisetifolia L., Plants of the World Online, Kew Science](https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:159856-1)
6. [Casuarina, Silvics of North America, USDA Forest Service](https://research.fs.usda.gov/silvics/casuarina)
7. [Casuarina in Africa: Distribution, role and importance of arbuscular mycorrhizal, ectomycorrhizal fungi and Frankia on plant development](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301479713003290)
8. [Difficult Sites Are Home to Casuarina, Winrock International FACT Net fact sheet](https://winrock.org/factnet/fact-net-fact-sheets/difficult-sites-are-home-to-casuarina/)
9. [Economics of production of Casuarina equisetifolia, World Agroforestry Centre tree database](https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/Economic/casuarina_equisetifolia.pdf)
10. [A Review on Biomass Productivity of Casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia L.) through Fertilization and Irrigation Approaches (2024)](https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2303_41494166)
11. [Ecology and Management of Sheoak (Casuarina spp.), an Invader of Coastal Florida, U.S.A., USDA ARS](https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/33272/Gaskin_243079.pdf)
12. [Casuarina equisetifolia, IUCN Red List](https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/16728404/16728408)
13. [Casuarina equisetifolia, NParks Flora & Fauna Web, Singapore](https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/7/2793)
14. [Australian Pine (Casuarina equisetifolia) Management Plan, FLEPPC](https://bugwoodcloud.org/CDN/fleppc/publications/Casuarinamgmntplan_FINAL-05-13-13.pdf)
15. [Salt tolerance of Casuarina equisetifolia and Frankia Ceq1 strain isolated from the root nodules of C. equisetifolia, Soil Science and Plant Nutrition](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2003.10410000)
16. [Physiological adaptation and gene expression analysis of Casuarina equisetifolia under salt stress, Biologia Plantarum](http://bp.ueb.cas.cz/artkey/bpl-201803-0010_physiological-adaptation-and-gene-expression-analysis-of-casuarina-equisetifolia-under-salt-stress.php)
17. [Multi-omics analyses reveal the mechanisms underlying the responses of Casuarina equisetifolia ssp. incana to seawater atomization and encroachment stress, BMC Plant Biology (2024)](https://bmcplantbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12870-024-05561-z)
18. [Casuarina spp., Fire Effects Information System, USDA Forest Service](https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/casspp/all.html)
19. [Protection of Coastal Shelter Forests Using UAVs: Individual Tree and Tree-Height Detection in Casuarina equisetifolia L. Forests, Forests (2023)](https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/14/2/233)
20. [Symbiotic Performance of Diverse Frankia Strains on Salt-Stressed Casuarina glauca and Casuarina equisetifolia Plants](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5006599/)
21. [Casuarina publication, Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, ENVIS](https://ifgtbenvis.in/build/publication/Casuarina.pdf)
22. [FOR298/FR366: Casuarina equisetifolia, Australian Pine, UF/IFAS](https://ask.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FR366)
23. [Mechanisms of salt stress tolerance in Casuarina: a review of recent research](https://doi.org/10.1080/13416979.2022.2036416)
24. [Microbial diversity in coastal Casuarina equisetifolia forest and its potential in counteracting bacterial wilt infections (2025)](https://scijournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ps.8822)
25. [The AHL-driven cascade of rhizosphere microbes, enzymes, and nutrients contributes to the growth decline of Casuarina equisetifolia in continuous planting systems (2025)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhisph.2025.101086)
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*Topic: Encyclopedia › Life and health › Plants and algae › Seed plants › Other flowering plants › Basal eudicots*
*Initially written Sep 17, 2026 · Reviewed: Oct 21, 2026 · Edited: Oct 15, 2026; Oct 21, 2026 · Last review: Oct 21, 2026*
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License: Edgepedia Community License 1.0, https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license