# Cicero
**Marcus Tullius Cicero** (106–43 BCE) was a Roman statesman, orator, and philosophical writer, a leading political actor of the late [Roman Republic](https://www.edgepedia.org/roman-republic) and the author of the first surviving attempt to articulate a philosophical rationale for republicanism[1](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cicero/) • [2](https://academic.oup.com/book/32001). Around a dozen of his philosophical works survive, alongside speeches, treatises on rhetoric, and a large collection of letters[1](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cicero/). His writings shaped Western legal and political thought for two millennia, and he is still quoted, and argued over, today[3](https://scholarworks.law.ubalt.edu/all_fac/1164/) • [4](https://time.com/6316386/tom-holland-roman-empire-obsession-essay/).
| Key fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Dates | 106–43 BCE, within the final century of the Roman Republic (conventionally dated to 509–27 BCE)[1](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cicero/) • [19](https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/roman-republic/) |
| Social position | A *homo novus*, or "new man", from a minor provincial landowning family rather than the hereditary nobility[5](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-political/) |
| Peak offices | Consul for 63 BCE; later governor of Cilicia with Pisidia, Pamphylia, parts of Cappadocia, and Cyprus annexed[6](https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/C1E3D13C7B2A8D0D3F0E7D96BB41349D/S205863102400045Xa.pdf/ciceros_consulship_campaign_a_selection_of_sources_relating_to_ciceros_election_as_consul_for_63bc_including_a_short_guide_to_electioneering_lactor_sourcebooks_in_ancient_history_volume_3_mgl_cooley_ed_pp_53_cambridge_cambridge_university_press_2023_second_edition_paper_1299_isbn_9781009383523.pdf) • [7](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aentry%3Dcicero-bio-7&force=y) |
| Philosophical output | Roughly a dozen surviving philosophical works; *De Re Publica*, *De Legibus*, and *De Oratore* introduced the dialogue form into Latin literature[1](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cicero/) |
| Signature political idea | A realist conception of natural law, knowable by reason, with authority over any civil law[5](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-political/) • [8](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/from-individual-virtue-to-the-just-state-cicero-and-the-legal-nature-of-roman-political-thought/98F327304DF4FA6CEB58DB78CDE8A7DF) |
| Last political act | A series of speeches, the *Philippics*, denouncing Mark Antony as a tyrant after Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE[9](https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2025/07/cicero-happiness-best-life/683376/) |
## Political career
Cicero rose through Roman politics without the advantage of birth. As the most famous *homo novus* of Roman public life, he came from a minor provincial landowning family rather than the great clans of hereditary nobility[5](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-political/). His rhetorical training was laid down early: the principles of oratory were impressed on him by Molo the Rhodian, whose reputation as a forensic speaker matched his skill as a teacher, and Cicero practiced declamation daily, more often in Greek than in Latin[7](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aentry%3Dcicero-bio-7&force=y). He was elected consul for 63 BCE, a contest for which primary sources survive including letters to Atticus, extracts from two speeches, and his own "Short Guide to Electioneering"[6](https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/C1E3D13C7B2A8D0D3F0E7D96BB41349D/S205863102400045Xa.pdf/ciceros_consulship_campaign_a_selection_of_sources_relating_to_ciceros_election_as_consul_for_63bc_including_a_short_guide_to_electioneering_lactor_sourcebooks_in_ancient_history_volume_3_mgl_cooley_ed_pp_53_cambridge_cambridge_university_press_2023_second_edition_paper_1299_isbn_9781009383523.pdf).
His provincial command came by lot: when a law of Pompey's third consulship was enacted to curb the bribery and intrigue by which magistrates sought wealthy governorships, Cicero's name was drawn and he was assigned Cilicia, to which Pisidia, Pamphylia, some districts of [Cappadocia](https://www.edgepedia.org/cappadocia) north of Mount Taurus, and the island of Cyprus were annexed[7](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aentry%3Dcicero-bio-7&force=y).
His speeches and letters are themselves of political and philosophical interest, reworking the evaluative vocabulary of [Roman law](https://www.edgepedia.org/roman-law) and politics to serve his shifting purposes. A critical assessment by Ingo Gildenhard concludes that in his rhetoric Cicero "consistently refused to recognize the positions of his adversaries as genuine political positions" and challenged their standing as senatorial peers, Roman citizens, or even human beings[5](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-political/).
## Political philosophy
Malcolm Schofield, a professor emeritus of ancient philosophy at the [University of Cambridge](https://www.edgepedia.org/university-of-cambridge), reads Cicero's theoretical works as an exploration of central political concepts: freedom and equality, governance, the law, cosmopolitanism together with imperialism, the virtues of republican life, and how ethical choices are made in political affairs. Schofield situates these works in the context of a fracturing traditional Roman political order, while noting both the continuing attraction of Cicero's conceptual landscape and some of its limits as a response to the crisis engulfing Rome[2](https://academic.oup.com/book/32001).
**Natural law.** At the heart of Cicero's political theory lies a novel conception of natural law: realist, in that the natural law is an objective part of the world discoverable by reason, yet novel against Greek antecedents in that it does not incorporate a substantive conception of the highest good[8](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/from-individual-virtue-to-the-just-state-cicero-and-the-legal-nature-of-roman-political-thought/98F327304DF4FA6CEB58DB78CDE8A7DF). In *De re publica*, Scipio asserts that there is a universal natural law with authority over any civil law, so that what carries ultimate moral weight is the judgment of the wise person who understands it rather than the decree of the [Roman people](https://www.edgepedia.org/roman-people) (1.27); the dialogue's closing *Dream of Scipio*, the most famous excerpt in all of Cicero's philosophy, survived only because it came down in a separate manuscript tradition[10](https://plato.sydney.edu.au/entries////////////cicero/). In the academic-skeptic mode of his rhetorical works, the speech for justice adopts Stoic themes: "true law is right reason, consonant with nature", and there is "one eternal and unchangeable law"[5](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-political/).
**Law and eloquence.** Cicero's practical relationship to law was that of an advocate, and a chapter of *Cicero the Advocate* argues that his courtroom use of law is best explained by three factors: the nature of public pleading; the many uncertainties and obscurities inherent in Roman law of the first century BCE, which left space for genuine dispute; and his contention, expressed most fully in the *De Oratore* of 55 BCE, that knowledge of law *per se* mattered less than eloquence in winning cases[11](https://academic.oup.com/book/2533/chapter-abstract/142844808). Later scholarship on Cicero as a legal thinker frames the question as a paradox: anyone interested in him as a legal thinker and in his importance for the development of Roman law faces a somewhat paradoxical situation, given that he wrote as advocate and outsider rather than jurist[12](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g050m4).
## Philosophy and method
Philosophy was a lifelong passion. One of Cicero's stated purposes in writing it was to bring the best of the Greek philosophical inheritance to wider Roman attention, and modern scholarship long valued his work chiefly as a report on the schools of his day: Stoicism, [Epicureanism](https://www.edgepedia.org/epicureanism), and [Academic skepticism](https://www.edgepedia.org/academic-skepticism)[1](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cicero/). He is now increasingly studied as a philosopher in his own right, partly because of the creative way he engages with predecessors[1](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cicero/).
His method was deliberately skeptical. He set himself against the "dogmatic" schools of his time, in particular Epicureanism and Stoicism, where dogmatism means doctrines that their advocates treat as settled truth rather than positions argued without support[13](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2024/entries/cicero/). The *Academica*, which survives in a rather misshapen state containing portions of two different editions, presents the epistemological viewpoint of the skeptical Academy and so serves as a defense of the method he employs in much of his philosophical writing[14](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2024/entries/cicero/). Its recent critical edition, prepared by Tobias Reinhardt for the [Oxford Classical Texts](https://www.edgepedia.org/oxford-classical-texts), was the first new edition of the text since 1908[15](https://philpapers.org/rec/CICCAD).
## Influence
Mortimer N. S. Sellers, a professor at the University of Baltimore School of Law, calls Cicero "the father of modern law and politics" and argues that his influence, significant throughout subsequent European history, was never greater than in the emergence of modernity and the development of modern law and constitutional government[3](https://scholarworks.law.ubalt.edu/all_fac/1164/). On representation, Gary Remer argues against the view that political representation is a purely modern phenomenon: in *De oratore* and *De republica* Cicero describes his ideal orator-statesman with terms such as *procurator*, *auctor*, *tutor*, *dispensator*, and *vilicus* that suggest representation, and the characteristics he assigns the orator parallel those modern theorists such as [Edmund Burke](https://www.edgepedia.org/edmund-burke) and [John Stuart Mill](https://www.edgepedia.org/john-stuart-mill) associate with the representative[16](https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1017/S0022381610000538).
Cicero also made himself a subject of the historical record. In 59 BC he wrote privately to his close friend [Titus Pomponius Atticus](https://www.edgepedia.org/titus-pomponius-atticus) that he worried "far more what the judgement on me will be in a 1,000 years time than what the trolls are saying today"; more than 2,000 years later he is still being quoted[4](https://time.com/6316386/tom-holland-roman-empire-obsession-essay/).
## Afterlife and modern reception
Cicero's account of the Republic's end remains influential in how later ages imagine Rome. [Donna Zuckerberg](https://www.edgepedia.org/donna-zuckerberg), a classics scholar who studies [Silicon Valley](https://www.edgepedia.org/silicon-valley) culture, notes that Cicero strongly influenced how we picture the late Roman Republic and, motivated partly by self-definition, sought to portray Rome as a meritocracy in which exceptionally gifted men such as himself would attain the highest positions; she contends that this story glosses over the entrenched power structures that made success easier for men with wealth and connections.[17](https://www.lemonde.fr/en/pixels/article/2025/06/21/technologia-imperatores-unpacking-the-tech-bro-fascination-with-the-roman-empire_6742586_13.html)
His last act fixed the terms of his reputation. After [Julius Caesar](https://www.edgepedia.org/julius-caesar) was assassinated in 44 BCE, he judged it a civic duty to speak out against the threat to the republic posed by [Mark Antony](https://www.edgepedia.org/mark-antony), denouncing Antony as a tyrant in the speeches called the *Philippics*[9](https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2025/07/cicero-happiness-best-life/683376/). Textual scholarship on him continues: Robert Kaster's Oxford Classical Text edition of the *Tusculan Disputations*, which presents in dialogue form Cicero's views on the fear of death, the endurance of pain, and virtue as the basis of the best human life, is the first new edition of that work in over forty years[18](https://classics.princeton.edu/research/bookshelf/cicero-tusculan-disputations-marci-tulli-ciceronis-tusculanarum-disputationum).
## References
1. [Raphael Woolf, "Cicero", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cicero/)
2. [Malcolm Schofield, *Cicero: Political Philosophy*, Oxford University Press, 2021](https://academic.oup.com/book/32001)
3. [Mortimer N. S. Sellers, "The Influence of Marcus Tullius Cicero on Modern Legal and Political Ideas"](https://scholarworks.law.ubalt.edu/all_fac/1164/)
4. [Tom Holland, "Why We Can't Get Over the Roman Empire", Time, 2023](https://time.com/6316386/tom-holland-roman-empire-obsession-essay/)
5. ["Ancient Political Philosophy", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-political/)
6. [M. G. L. Cooley (ed.), *Cicero's Consulship Campaign*, LACTOR Sourcebooks in Ancient History, Vol. 3, 2nd ed., 2023](https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/C1E3D13C7B2A8D0D3F0E7D96BB41349D/S205863102400045Xa.pdf/ciceros_consulship_campaign_a_selection_of_sources_relating_to_ciceros_election_as_consul_for_63bc_including_a_short_guide_to_electioneering_lactor_sourcebooks_in_ancient_history_volume_3_mgl_cooley_ed_pp_53_cambridge_cambridge_university_press_2023_second_edition_paper_1299_isbn_9781009383523.pdf)
7. ["Tullius Cicero", *A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology*, Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aentry%3Dcicero-bio-7&force=y)
8. [Hawley, "From Individual Virtue to the Just State", *Journal of Roman Studies*, 2024](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/from-individual-virtue-to-the-just-state-cicero-and-the-legal-nature-of-roman-political-thought/98F327304DF4FA6CEB58DB78CDE8A7DF)
9. ["The Ciceronian Secret to Happiness", The Atlantic, 2025](https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2025/07/cicero-happiness-best-life/683376/)
10. ["Cicero", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (mirrored edition)](https://plato.sydney.edu.au/entries////////////cicero/)
11. ["Cicero and the Law", in *Cicero the Advocate*, Oxford Academic](https://academic.oup.com/book/2533/chapter-abstract/142844808)
12. [*Cicero's Law: Rethinking Roman Law of the Late Republic*, JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g050m4)
13. ["Cicero", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Fall 2024 edition](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2024/entries/cicero/)
14. ["Cicero", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Spring 2024 edition](https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2024/entries/cicero/)
15. [Marcus Tullius Cicero, *Academica*, ed. Tobias Reinhardt, Oxford Classical Texts, 2022](https://philpapers.org/rec/CICCAD)
16. [Gary Remer, "The Classical Orator as Political Representative", *Journal of Politics* 72(4), 2010](https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1017/S0022381610000538)
17. ["Technologia imperatores: Unpacking the tech bros' fascination with the Roman Empire", Le Monde, 2025](https://www.lemonde.fr/en/pixels/article/2025/06/21/technologia-imperatores-unpacking-the-tech-bro-fascination-with-the-roman-empire_6742586_13.html)
18. [Robert Kaster (ed.), *Cicero: Tusculan Disputations*, Oxford Classical Texts, 2026, Princeton Classics](https://classics.princeton.edu/research/bookshelf/cicero-tusculan-disputations-marci-tulli-ciceronis-tusculanarum-disputationum)
19. [Roman Republic](https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/roman-republic/)
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