All articles starting with R

RMS Queen Elizabeth

RMS Queen Elizabeth was a British ocean liner launched in 1938 for Cunard's Southampton–New York service, the largest liner of her time, destroyed by fire in Hong Kong in 1972.

RMS Queen Mary

RMS Queen Mary, also known as The Queen Mary, is a retired British ocean liner moored as a hotel in Long Beach, California, since 1967.

RMS Republic (1903)

RMS Republic was a White Star Line passenger liner built in 1903 that sank off Nantucket in 1909 after colliding with the Italian steamer SS Florida.

Oct 15, 2026

RMSNorm

RMSNorm (root mean square layer normalization) is a neural network normalization layer proposed by Biao Zhang and Rico Sennrich in 2019 and standard in LLaMA and Mistral.

Oct 15, 2026

RMSProp is an adaptive gradient-descent optimizer for machine learning, introduced informally by Geoffrey Hinton in 2012 Coursera lectures, that divides each gradient by a decaying average of recent squared gradients.

RNA

RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded nucleic acid with ribose and uracil that carries genetic information, catalyzes reactions, and regulates genes; classes include mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, and microRNA, and 27 RNA therapeutics were FDA-approved as of August 2026.

RNA activation

RNA activation (RNAa): gene upregulation by 21-nt small activating RNAs (saRNAs) targeting promoters via Ago2 and the RITA complex, conserved from C. elegans to humans; MTL-CEBPA is in clinical trials.

RNA amplification

RNA amplification is a molecular biology technique that copies RNA from very small samples into larger amounts for microarray hybridization or sequencing, classically by T7 in vitro transcription.

RNA Bind-n-Seq

RNA Bind-n-Seq (RBNS) is an in vitro assay, introduced in 2014, that measures the binding specificity of RNA-binding proteins across random RNA sequences using deep sequencing.

RNA biology

RNA biology: the life-science field studying RNA structure, processing, modifications, and regulatory roles, and the source of RNAi, CRISPR-Cas9, and mRNA vaccines; also the name of the Taylor & Francis journal RNA Biology (ISSN 1547-6286, founded 2004).

RNA editing

RNA editing: post-transcriptional alteration of RNA sequences (A-to-I by ADAR, C-to-U by APOBEC, uridine insertion/deletion) that recodes transcripts without changing DNA; reversible, doseable, and the basis of emerging therapeutic RNA base editors.

RNA editing and modification in cancer

RNA editing and modification in cancer describes how ADAR-mediated A-to-I editing and m6A methylation by METTL3 and related enzymes promote or suppress tumors like glioblastoma and liver cancer.

RNA editing in neurological and immune disease

RNA editing in neurological and immune disease describes how ADAR-mediated A-to-I editing, when deficient or excessive, contributes to ALS, Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, Aicardi–Goutières syndrome, and autoimmune inflammation.

RNA editing in plant organelles

RNA editing in plant organelles is the post-transcriptional conversion of cytidine to uridine in chloroplast and mitochondrial transcripts of land plants, discovered in 1989 and guided by PPR proteins.

RNA elements and technologies

RNA elements are sequences and structures within an RNA molecule that regulate or catalyze that same molecule without proteins, including metabolite-sensing riboswitches and ribozymes, the catalytic RNAs discovered in 1982.

RNA extraction

RNA extraction is the laboratory method that isolates RNA from cells or tissues, separating it from DNA, protein, and other contaminants so the RNA can be measured or sequenced.

RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization

RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (RNA FISH) detects and locates specific RNA molecules in fixed cells with fluorescent probes, counting individual transcripts and revealing their subcellular positions.

RNA guanine-N7 methyltransferase activating subunit

RAMAC (RAM, FAM103A1, C15orf18) is a human 118-aa nuclear protein, the vertebrate-specific activating subunit of the RNMT:RAMAC mRNA cap methyltransferase complex that methylates the N7 position of the mRNA 5' cap guanosine.

RNA immunoprecipitation

RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) is a molecular biology technique that uses an antibody against a protein to isolate the RNAs bound to it, read out by PCR, microarray, or sequencing.

RNA interactome capture

RNA interactome capture (RIC) is a biochemical method that identifies the RNA-binding proteins of cultured cells by in vivo UV crosslinking, oligo(dT) capture of polyadenylated RNA, and mass spectrometry.

RNA interference

RNA interference (RNAi), or post-transcriptional gene silencing, is double-stranded-RNA-triggered gene silencing via Dicer, siRNA, and Argonaute/RISC. Discovered by Fire and Mello (1998, Nobel 2006); basis of siRNA drugs like patisiran and inclisiran.

RNA methyltransferase bin3, C-terminal

C-terminal conserved AdoMet-dependent methyltransferase domain of Bin3 (MePCE/BCDIN3, Bicoid-interacting protein 3), which caps 7SK and U6 snRNAs; distinct from the unrelated BAR-domain protein Bridging integrator 3.

RNA methyltransferases

RNA methyltransferases are enzymes that transfer methyl groups from SAM onto RNA, writing marks such as m6A and 2'-O-methylation that regulate mRNA fate, translation, and immunity.

RNA modification databases

RNA modification databases are curated bioinformatic resources organizing RNA chemical modifications, split into chemistry catalogs like MODOMICS and site atlases like RMBase, Sci-ModoM, and DirectRMDB.

Oct 22, 2026

RNA origami

RNA origami is a method for designing RNA nanostructures that fold into a target shape as a single strand is transcribed, used in nanomedicine and synthetic biology.

RNA polymerase

RNA polymerase (RNAP), the multisubunit enzyme transcribing DNA into RNA in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes; sigma factors, Pol I/II/III, two-Mg2+ catalysis, backtracking proofreading, antibiotic target.

RNA polymerase I

RNA polymerase I is the eukaryotic enzyme that transcribes ribosomal RNA genes in the nucleolus, producing the precursor of the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S rRNAs.

RNA polymerase II

RNA polymerase II (Pol II) is the 12-subunit, ~500 kDa eukaryotic enzyme that transcribes mRNA and many non-coding RNAs; its YSPTSPS CTD repeats, DSIF/NELF pausing, P-TEFb release, and cryo-EM structures distinguish it from Pol I and Pol III.

RNA polymerase II associated factor Paf1

Paf1 (RNA polymerase II associated factor 1, also PD2) is the core subunit of the conserved Paf1 complex (Paf1C), a five-subunit yeast and six-subunit human Pol II elongation factor regulating histone modifications, polyadenylation, and cancer-linked genes.