# Fungiidae

**Fungiidae** Dana, 1846, commonly called the mushroom corals, is a family of stony corals in the order [Scleractinia](https://www.edgepedia.org/scleractinia), phylum Cnidaria, class [Hexacorallia](https://www.edgepedia.org/hexacorallia)<sup>[1](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?command=show&id=46711&lvl=&mode=node)</sup>. Species grow in a mushroom-like shape, which gives the family its common name, and most consist of large, free-living single polyps rather than attached colonies<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup>. The family is predominantly free-living, zooxanthellate (hosting symbiotic algae), and reef-dwelling, with its distribution centered on the tropical [Indo-Pacific](https://www.edgepedia.org/indo-pacific)<sup>[3](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/376596)</sup>.

| Key fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Classification | Family Fungiidae Dana, 1846; order Scleractinia; class Hexacorallia; phylum Cnidaria; GenBank common name "mushroom corals"<sup>[1](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?command=show&id=46711&lvl=&mode=node)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup> |
| Distribution | Tropical Indo-Pacific, in sublittoral reef and nearby marine habitats<sup>[4](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/317727)</sup> |
| Growth form | Mostly solitary, unattached single polyps; some species remain attached even as adults<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[5](https://www.esabii.biodic.go.jp/training/documents/02_CoralsTaxonomy_final.pdf)</sup> |
| Species count | About 55 species in 17 genera with no subgenera, per the World List of Scleractinia (Hoeksema and Cairns, 2021)<sup>[6](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321001986)</sup> |
| Defining skeleton | Compound synapticulae between the septo-costal units distinguish fungiids from other scleractinian corals<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup> |
| Movement | Free-living fungiids on sandy substrate can puff up their tissue and move over the substrate<sup>[7](https://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/ocrd/245732.pdf)</sup> |
| Mitogenomes | 24 sequenced mitogenomes covering 18 species and 12 genera range from 16,292 to 17,399 bp<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup> |

## Form and life habit

Most stony corals are colonial organisms attached to the reef substrate, but many Fungiidae species are solitary (non-colonial) and free-living (unattached)<sup>[6](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321001986)</sup>. Free-living does not mean immobile: fungiids dwelling on sandy substrate may inflate their tissue and move across the surface<sup>[7](https://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/ocrd/245732.pdf)</sup>. Not every member follows the free-living pattern; some species remain attached to the substrate even in their adult stages<sup>[5](https://www.esabii.biodic.go.jp/training/documents/02_CoralsTaxonomy_final.pdf)</sup>.

The skeleton shows a radial architecture shared across the family. Septo-costae radiate from the mouth, appearing as septa on the upper surface and as costae on the center of the under-surface<sup>[5](https://www.esabii.biodic.go.jp/training/documents/02_CoralsTaxonomy_final.pdf)</sup>. The presence of compound synapticulae between these septo-costal units separates Fungiidae from other scleractinian corals<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup>.

**Genus examples.** *Cycloseris* species are solitary, free-living, flat or dome-shaped, circular or slightly oval in outline with a central mouth, no pits on the under-surface, and reach up to 10 cm; the genus consists of 11 species restricted to reef environments<sup>[5](https://www.esabii.biodic.go.jp/training/documents/02_CoralsTaxonomy_final.pdf)</sup>. *Diaseris* species are solitary free-living polyps with fan-shaped segments whose mouth sits at the point where the segments diverge; the genus consists of two species<sup>[5](https://www.esabii.biodic.go.jp/training/documents/02_CoralsTaxonomy_final.pdf)</sup>.

## Taxonomic history

The family was established by Dana in 1846<sup>[1](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?command=show&id=46711&lvl=&mode=node)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[8](https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=53108)</sup>. Since Wells' 1956 revision of the Scleractinia, the Fungiidae and the Micrabaciidae, a family of solitary free-living deep-sea corals, were the only accepted families in their grouping<sup>[9](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/317727/ZV1989254001.pdf)</sup>.

**The 1989 revision.** B.W. Hoeksema's monograph *Taxonomy, Phylogeny and Biogeography of Mushroom Corals* divided the family into 11 genera, with the type genus *[Fungia](https://www.edgepedia.org/fungia)* subdivided into seven subgenera, and described 40 species, three of them new to science, with one species renamed<sup>[4](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/317727)</sup>. The work also mapped each species' geographic range, gave stratigraphic distributions for fossil-recorded species, and offered a tentative cladistic reconstruction presented as a working hypothesis<sup>[4](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/317727)</sup>.

**The molecular revision.** Gittenberger, Reijnen, and Hoeksema (2011) reconstructed the family's phylogeny by sequencing part of the mitochondrial Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) gene and the complete ribosomal Internal Transcribed Spacers (ITS) I and II from specimens across the Indo-West Pacific; some sequences came from fungiid-specific primers applied to DNA extracts of parasitic gastropods living with the corals<sup>[3](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/376596)</sup>. The molecular tree largely matched the morphology-based one but showed distinct differences: several polyphyletic taxa were detected, and genera and species previously considered close relatives turned out not to be<sup>[3](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/376596)</sup>. The proposed nomenclatural changes included upgrading the *Fungia* subgenera to genus level<sup>[3](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/376596)</sup>. As revised by combining molecular and morphological data, the World List of Scleractinia now records about 55 species in 17 genera with no subgenera<sup>[6](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321001986)</sup>.

Molecular phylogenetics has also expanded the family's boundaries. Research has shown that the genera *Psammocora* and *Coscinaraea*, placed in Siderastreidae, together with *Leptastrea* and *Oulastrea*, placed in Faviidae, are actually nearer to the fungiid corals and belong within Fungiidae<sup>[7](https://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/ocrd/245732.pdf)</sup>.

## Evolutionary patterns

The 2011 molecular phylogeny yielded two broad findings about how fungiid life histories evolved<sup>[3](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/376596)</sup>:

- The loss of the ability to become free-living evolved independently as reversals in four separate clades, including two previously assumed to be sister groups.
- The evolution of additional (secondary) mouths, producing polystomatous growth forms from the single-mouthed monostomatous form, occurred independently ten times: seven times by extrastomatal budding and three times by intrastomatal budding. In two clades, *Herpolitha* and *Polyphyllia*, both mechanisms co-evolved. In general there is no clear relationship between losing the free-living phase and evolving multiple mouths.

Three major clades were distinguished, one containing species with relatively long tentacles; the other two could not yet be separated morphologically<sup>[3](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/376596)</sup>.

## Species boundaries and cryptic diversity

Traditional coral taxonomy based on skeletal macromorphology has underestimated diversity in many coral families, and fungiid morphology responds to environmental conditions, producing plastic phenotypic variation<sup>[6](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321001986)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup>. A 2021 phylogenomic study applied targeted enrichment to sequence 2,476 ultraconserved elements (UCEs) and exonic loci, comparing populations of *Fungia fungites* from Okinawa, where the species reproduces by brooding (internal fertilization), with populations from [Papua New Guinea](https://www.edgepedia.org/papua-new-guinea) and Australia that reproduce by broadcast-spawning (external fertilization)<sup>[6](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321001986)</sup>. The analyses showed pronounced biogeographic patterning in *F. fungites* and *Herpolitha limax* alike, which points to cryptic speciation in Okinawa for both, and, in the case of *H. limax*, in the [Red Sea](https://www.edgepedia.org/red-sea) as well<sup>[6](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321001986)</sup>. The same study reinforced earlier findings that *Ctenactis*, a genus of three nominal morphospecies, is not a natural group, highlighting the need for taxonomic re-evaluation of some species and genera within the family<sup>[6](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321001986)</sup>.

Small species pose a separate identification problem: the smallest free-living mushroom corals show relatively few distinguishing characters and much ecophenotypic variation, making them among the most difficult to identify<sup>[10](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3909799/)</sup>.

## Mitogenomes as a tool

A 2025 dataset presented 24 complete Fungiidae mitogenomes representing 18 species from 12 of the family's genera, collected in the [South China Sea](https://www.edgepedia.org/south-china-sea)<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup>. The mitogenomes are highly similar, each containing the same 13 protein-coding genes and two rRNA genes found in other scleractinian corals, while the intergenic regions (IGRs) are more diverse<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup>. Minisatellite sequences were identified in the IGRs between COX1 and trnM and between ND4 and rrnS in most mitogenomes, and primarily because of the minisatellites in the COX1-trnM region, mitogenome length varies from 16,292 to 17,399 bp<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup>.

Bayesian phylogenetic trees built from the 13 protein-coding genes and the two IGRs divide the family into four distinct clades and resolve genus- and species-level relationships better than partial COI sequences do<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup>. The standard COI barcode has limited resolution in this family; in some cases COI sequences from different genera, such as *Lithophyllon undulatum*, *Lithophyllon scabra*, and *Danafungia horrida*, are identical<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup>. The diverse IGRs may serve as a resource for developing Fungiidae DNA barcodes, and the minisatellites can support population biology studies<sup>[2](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)</sup>.

## References

1. [Fungiidae, NCBI Taxonomy Browser, Taxonomy ID 46711](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?command=show&id=46711&lvl=&mode=node)
2. [Li, L. and colleagues (2025). Dataset of the complete mitogenomes of the mushroom corals Fungiidae. Data in Brief.](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12311936/)
3. [Gittenberger, A., Reijnen, B. and Hoeksema, B.W. (2011). A molecularly based phylogeny reconstruction of mushroom corals (Scleractinia: Fungiidae). Contributions to Zoology 80(2), 107-132.](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/376596)
4. [Hoeksema, B.W. (1989). Taxonomy, Phylogeny and Biogeography of Mushroom Corals (Scleractinia: Fungiidae). Zoologische Verhandelingen 254(1), 1-295.](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/317727)
5. [Notes on the Family Fungiidae, Training Manual on Corals Taxonomy in Southeast Asia](https://www.esabii.biodic.go.jp/training/documents/02_CoralsTaxonomy_final.pdf)
6. [Biogeography, reproductive biology and phylogenetic divergence within the Fungiidae (mushroom corals). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 164, 107265 (2021).](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321001986)
7. [Fungiidae Dana, 1846, VLIZ publication PDF](https://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/ocrd/245732.pdf)
8. [Fungiidae Dana, 1846, ITIS Report, TSN 53108](https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=53108)
9. [Hoeksema: Mushroom Corals (Fungiidae), chapter 13, criteria and terminology](https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/317727/ZV1989254001.pdf)
10. [The "Fungia patella group" (Scleractinia, Fungiidae) revisited, with a description of Cycloseris boschmai sp. n.](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3909799/)

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*Topic: Encyclopedia › Life and health › Animals › Invertebrates › Other invertebrate lineages › Cnidarians and ctenophores › Anthozoans › Hexacorallia › Stony coral genera and species › Fungiidae and free-living mushroom corals*

*Initially written Sep 17, 2026 · Reviewed: Oct 21, 2026 · Edited: Oct 11, 2026; Oct 15, 2026; Oct 21, 2026 · Last review: Oct 21, 2026*

*Copyright 2026 EdgeChat AI, a subsidiary of Biostate AI.*

License: Edgepedia Community License 1.0, https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license