# Jelly fungi of East Asia
Jelly fungi of East Asia are gelatinous, wood-decaying Basidiomycete mushrooms, above all the genus *Auricularia* (wood ears, [Auriculariales](https://www.edgepedia.org/auriculariales)) together with *[Tremella](https://www.edgepedia.org/tremella)* species[3](https://doi.org/10.5943/mycosphere/10/1/10). China's national macrofungal atlas records 1,819 species (or varieties) in 509 genera, of which 21 are jelly fungi[1](https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-99-6315-7), and wood ear has been eaten and cultivated there for a very long time: *A. heimuer* was considered a delicacy of the emperor in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty 2,000 years ago and has a cultivation history of roughly 2,100 years[2](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110933) • [3](https://doi.org/10.5943/mycosphere/10/1/10).
| Key fact | Value |
|---|---|
| *Auricularia* species worldwide | 37 recognized after a multi-gene revision of 277 samples from 35 countries[2](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110933) |
| *Auricularia* species in China | 16 species and one variety[4](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050395) |
| Chinese *A. heimuer* production, 2023 | 7.1447 million tons, second among China's cultivated mushrooms[4](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050395) |
| Chinese *A. heimuer* value, 2019 | 7.1 billion kg fresh weight, more than ¥36.5 billion RMB (≈$5.6 billion USD)[2](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110933) |
| Japanese self-sufficiency in kikurage, 2019 | About 8.4% of consumption; imports of 20,521–26,696 t raw equivalent per year[5](https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/msb/29/3/29_113/_pdf) |
| European *A. auricula-judae* in East Asia | Not found in China, Japan, or Korea in molecular surveys[6](https://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2014/f/p00186p253f.pdf) • [7](https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjom/59/1/59_jjom.H30-02/_pdf) • [8](https://doi.org/10.4489/kjm.20210003) |
| *Tremella fuciformis* cultivation | Requires a mixed culture with its mycoparasitic host *Annulohypoxylon archeri*[9](https://austriaca.at/0xc1aa5572%200x0038b979.pdf) |
## Regional species inventories: China, Japan, Korea
**China** has the most complete inventory. The *Atlas of Chinese Macrofungal Resources* documents 1,819 macrofungal species (or varieties) in 509 genera across 10 morphological groups, including 21 jelly fungi and 47 coral fungi[1](https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-99-6315-7). A recent treatment counts 16 *Auricularia* species and one variety in China[4](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050395).
A [Northeast Asia](https://www.edgepedia.org/northeast-asia) checklist records 6,731 macrofungal species and 28 varieties in 1,115 genera, with [Basidiomycota](https://www.edgepedia.org/basidiomycota) at 85.92% and [Ascomycota](https://www.edgepedia.org/ascomycota) at 14.08% of species. Richness is uneven: Northeast China has the most (3,678 species and 2 varieties), followed by the Russian Far East (2,934 species and 2 varieties) and Japan (2,894 species and 14 varieties), while the Republic of Korea had fewer (2,161 species and 10 varieties)[10](https://www.biodiversity-science.net/CN/10.17520/biods.2026230).
**Japan's** checklist has been substantially revised by molecular work. Of 26 Japanese samples previously called *A. auricula-judae*, none were that European species; they were identified as *A. heimuer*, *A. minutissima*, *A. thailandica*, and *A. villosula*. Similarly, all 26 samples previously called *A. polytricha* were identified as *A. cornea*, and neither *A. polytricha* s.str. nor *A. nigricans* were found in Japan[7](https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjom/59/1/59_jjom.H30-02/_pdf).
**Korea** is the least completely surveyed of the three. Of 127 *Auricularia* specimens collected by the Korea National Arboretum from 2008 to 2020, barcode and morphological analysis of 33 specimens identified five Korean species, with *A. americana*, *A. heimuer*, and *A. villosula* new to Korea; *A. auricula-judae*, previously identified in Korea, was not found[8](https://doi.org/10.4489/kjm.20210003). Beyond *Auricularia*, regional diversity extends through Southeastern Asian relatives such as *A. thailandica*, described from the Philippines, Thailand, and Southern China[11](https://www.biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/view/phytotaxa.208.2.3).
## Taxonomy and species limits
The modern picture comes from a multi-gene study of 277 samples from 35 countries in Asia, Europe, North and South America, Africa, and Oceania, which identified 37 *Auricularia* species in five species complexes and described ten new species[2](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110933). Two long-standing names dissolved under this revision. The Chinese cultivated "Maomuer", identified as *A. polytricha* for over 100 years, is actually *A. cornea*, while *A. polytricha*, originally described from Jamaica, is a synonym of *A. nigricans*. "Heimuer", the most important cultivated *Auricularia* in China, had been mistakenly named *A. auricula-judae*, a European species, and was described as the new species *A. heimuer*[2](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110933).
The 2014 species description of *A. heimuer* rests on ITS and nLSU sequences of 33 wild and 10 cultivated samples, and states that *A. auricula-judae* is not found in China and most probably has a distribution in Europe only[6](https://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2014/f/p00186p253f.pdf). Morphologically, *A. heimuer* is characterized by short, unbranched abhymenial hairs of 50–150 × 4–6.5 µm, long clavate basidia with oil guttules measuring 40–67 × 3.0–6.5 µm, and allantoid spores of 11–13 × 4–5 µm; the same study reported *A. americana* and *A. villosula* from China for the first time, with *A. americana* found exclusively on gymnosperm wood[6](https://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2014/f/p00186p253f.pdf).
Phylogenetically, the 31 sequenced *Auricularia* species form three major clades. The *A. auricula-judae* complex (seven species) and the *A. mesenterica* complex (eight species) are each monophyletic, while the *A. cornea*, *A. delicata*, and *A. fuscosuccinea* complexes do not fully correspond to phylogenetic clades; recent ITS and nLSU multi-gene analyses show the genus itself is monophyletic[2](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110933).
## By the numbers
Production is dominated by China, where *Auricularia* is the second most widely cultivated mushroom after *Lentinula edodes*. Reported figures by year: about 6.3 billion kg in 2017[3](https://doi.org/10.5943/mycosphere/10/1/10); 7.1 billion kg fresh weight in 2019, valued at more than ¥36.5 billion RMB (≈$5.6 billion USD)[2](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110933); 7,064,300 tons in 2020, with more than 40% of production in northern China[12](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2022.1048249/full); 7.1447 million tons in 2023, with Maomuer (*A. cornea* and *A. polytricha*) at 2.8522 million tons, ranking second and fourth among China's cultivated mushrooms[4](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050395); and almost 8 million tons in 2024, making *A. heimuer* the second largest commercially produced edible mushroom in the world[13](https://brill.com/edcollchap/book/9789004751699/BP000023.pdf).
For dry products, as much as 674,000 tons of *A. auricula* dry products were produced in 2018, and more than 90% of the world's yield of *A. auricula* is produced in China[14](https://doi.org/10.5943/cream/14/1/14).
Japan produces little by comparison. Domestic jelly-fungus (kikurage) production increased 11.7 times to 2,315 t, but imports of 20,521–26,696 t raw equivalent per year meant domestic products accounted for only about 8.4% of Japanese consumption in 2019[5](https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/msb/29/3/29_113/_pdf). Within Japan in 2020, dried production was greatest in Yamaguchi at 29.2 tonnes followed by [Tottori](https://www.edgepedia.org/tottori) at 21.1 tonnes, while fresh production was highest in Gifu at 306.2 tonnes followed by Miyagi at 169.5 tonnes[15](https://jemj.salaifungi.com/current-trends-and-issues-in-japanese-domestic-production-of-auricularia-polytricha).
## Cultivation and use
*Auricularia* can be grown on both wood logs and small plastic bags[16](https://sydowia.at/syd76/T3-3138.pdf). The history of technique in China runs in three phases: before the 1960s the wood log method gave relatively low and unpredictable yields; by the end of the 1980s, with forest protection a high priority, substitute substrate cultivation was developed; and in the 21st century the "full daylight intermittent fog cultivation mode" and "small hole" punching technology drove rapid expansion, including poverty-alleviation programs[13](https://brill.com/edcollchap/book/9789004751699/BP000023.pdf). Substitute cultivation is more popular than wood cultivation because it is less expensive[12](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2022.1048249/full). Substrate trials show corn cobs are a viable *Auricularia* substrate: in bag cultivation, *A. cornea* and *A. fibrillifera* grew best on sawdust plus corn cob, with total yields of 290.87±17.62, 280±16.54, and 265.97±17.45 g per bag, and first primordia at 14–15 days[14](https://doi.org/10.5943/cream/14/1/14).
*[Tremella fuciformis](https://www.edgepedia.org/tremella-fuciformis)*, the silver ear fungus, is cultivated differently. Tremella species fall into five phylogenetic groups (Aurantia, Foliacea, Fuciformis, Indecorata, Mesenterica), and *T. fuciformis* is a mycoparasite of *Hypoxylon* species. Commercial cultivation therefore uses a mixed culture of *T. fuciformis* with its host *Annulohypoxylon archeri* (=*Hypoxylon* archeri) to obtain a rich yield[9](https://austriaca.at/0xc1aa5572%200x0038b979.pdf). In contrast, *Auricularia* is grown directly on wood logs and small plastic bags[16](https://sydowia.at/syd76/T3-3138.pdf).
Commercially, *A. cornea* and *A. heimuer* are cultivated in China, Thailand, and Taiwan, and also in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam, while *A. nigricans* is commercially cultivated because of its adaptability to tropical and subtropical conditions[16](https://sydowia.at/syd76/T3-3138.pdf) • [3](https://doi.org/10.5943/mycosphere/10/1/10). Several species including *A. heimuer*, *A. thailandica*, and *A. villosula* have been reported as edible, and both cultivated species contain rich proteins, dietary fiber, polysaccharides, and iron, with reported effects for reducing blood sugar, and blood lipid[3](https://doi.org/10.5943/mycosphere/10/1/10) • [13](https://brill.com/edcollchap/book/9789004751699/BP000023.pdf).
## How it compares with Western jelly fungi
The European wood ear, *A. auricula-judae*, is a genuinely European species in current taxonomy: it is not found in China[6](https://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2014/f/p00186p253f.pdf), none of 26 Japanese samples attributed to it were that species[7](https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjom/59/1/59_jjom.H30-02/_pdf), and it was not found among Korean collections[8](https://doi.org/10.4489/kjm.20210003). The mushrooms sold and eaten in [East Asia](https://www.edgepedia.org/east-asia) under wood-ear names are instead *A. heimuer* (the temperate cultivated "Heimuer"), *A. cornea* ("Maomuer"), and relatives such as *A. americana* and *A. villosula*[2](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110933) • [6](https://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2014/f/p00186p253f.pdf). Cultivated taxa span climates: the temperate *A. heimuer* dominates Chinese output, while *A. nigricans* is grown for its tropical and subtropical adaptability[16](https://sydowia.at/syd76/T3-3138.pdf).
## Recent developments
Three developments stand out. First, production has kept rising: 2023 statistics put Chinese *A. heimuer* output at 7.1447 million tons and Maomuer at 2.8522 million tons[4](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050395), and a 2024 figure of almost 8 million tons makes *A. heimuer* the world's second largest commercially produced edible mushroom[13](https://brill.com/edcollchap/book/9789004751699/BP000023.pdf). Second, the first Qinling *Auricularia* genomes were published: two domesticated wild strains from Zhashui County were sequenced, with M12 at 56.04 Mbp and 2.58% heterozygosity on 12 chromosomes and M13 at 52.10 Mbp with 2.34% heterozygosity; divergence between M12 and M13 was dated to about 4.575 million years ago and their divergence from *A. subglabra* to about 33.537 million years ago[4](https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050395). Third, checklists continue to grow: a 2024–2025 survey in northern Thailand produced the first record of *A. sinodelicata* in Thailand and Southeast Asia, identified via ITS, nrLSU, and rpb2 sequences, and showed that specimens previously reported as *A. delicata* from northern Thailand actually belong to *A. sinodelicata*[17](https://doi.org/10.12982/cmjs.2026.018).
## References
1. Atlas of Chinese Macrofungal Resources: Volume 1. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-99-6315-7
2. Global Diversity and Updated Phylogeny of Auricularia (Auriculariales, Basidiomycota). https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110933
3. A review of the polysaccharide, protein and selected nutrient content of Auricularia, and their potential pharmacological value. https://doi.org/10.5943/mycosphere/10/1/10
4. Genomic Sequencing and Characterization of Two Auricularia Species from the Qinling Region. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050395
5. Japanese production and market data on jelly fungi (kikurage). https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/msb/29/3/29_113/_pdf
6. Species clarification of the most important and cultivated Auricularia mushroom 'Heimuer'. https://www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/content/2014/f/p00186p253f.pdf
7. Taxonomic revision of Japanese Auricularia auricula-judae and A. polytricha. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjom/59/1/59_jjom.H30-02/_pdf
8. Current Taxonomical Status of Korean Auricularia Species. https://doi.org/10.4489/kjm.20210003
9. Phylogeny of Tremella and cultivation of T. fuciformis in Taiwan. https://austriaca.at/0xc1aa5572%200x0038b979.pdf
10. Macrofungal species diversity inventory of Northeast Asia. https://www.biodiversity-science.net/CN/10.17520/biods.2026230
11. Auricularia thailandica sp. nov. https://www.biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/view/phytotaxa.208.2.3
12. Research progress of Auricularia heimuer on cultivation physiology and molecular biology. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2022.1048249/full
13. Biology and cultivation of Auricularia heimuer and Auricularia cornea. https://brill.com/edcollchap/book/9789004751699/BP000023.pdf
14. New record of Auricularia in Thailand and optimization of different agricultural substrates for the cultivation of Auricularia. https://doi.org/10.5943/cream/14/1/14
15. Current trends and issues in Japanese domestic production of Auricularia polytricha. https://jemj.salaifungi.com/current-trends-and-issues-in-japanese-domestic-production-of-auricularia-polytricha
16. Cultivation of Auricularia species: a review (Sydowia 76). https://sydowia.at/syd76/T3-3138.pdf
17. Updated Taxonomic Insights into Auricularia in Thailand, with a New Record of Auricularia sinodelicata. https://doi.org/10.12982/cmjs.2026.018
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*Topic: Encyclopedia › Life and health › Microorganisms and fungi › Fungi and mycology › Basidiomycete taxa › Agaricomycetes › Chanterelles and other orders › Auriculariales and jelly fungi › Regional jelly-fungus taxonomies and species lists*
*Initially written Sep 17, 2026 · Edited: Oct 11, 2026; Oct 15, 2026*
*Copyright 2026 EdgeChat AI, a subsidiary of Biostate AI.*
License: Edgepedia Community License 1.0, https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license