# Lepiota brunneoincarnata
**Lepiota brunneoincarnata** Chodat & C. Martín (1889) is a small, deadly poisonous gilled mushroom of the family [Agaricaceae](https://www.edgepedia.org/agaricaceae), commonly grouped with the "deadly dapperlings", that contains amatoxins, the same toxin class as the deathcap (*Amanita phalloides*).[1](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf) Despite a cap of only a few centimeters, it is the *Lepiota* species most frequently responsible for fatal amatoxin poisonings, alongside *L. brunneolilacea*, *L. castanea*, *L. helveola*, and *L. subincarnata*.[2](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002) In China's 2024 national surveillance it caused 14 poisoning incidents with 32 affected patients and 2 deaths, tying it with three *Amanita* species as the most dangerous amatoxin-containing species that year.[3](https://doi.org/10.46234/ccdcw2025.106)
| Key fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Toxins | α-amanitin, β-amanitin, γ-amanitin (reported in one study), amanin and amaninamide; no phallotoxins detected[4](https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/6/8/2336) • [6](https://doi.org/10.3109/15569543.2015.1072563) |
| Measured toxin load | Total amatoxins 1.29–2.67 mg/g dry weight across studies; α-amanitin alone reported at 0.69–0.82, 0.72–1.97, or 2.38 ± 0.70 mg/g dry weight depending on study[5](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/12298093.2020.1765718) • [4](https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/6/8/2336) • [6](https://doi.org/10.3109/15569543.2015.1072563) |
| Lethal dose | Estimated median lethal dose of α-amanitin in humans 0.1 mg/kg (about 7–8 mg in adults); other reviews give 0.1–0.3 mg/kg[2](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002) • [7](https://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?pid=S0025-76802024000500579&script=sci_arttext) |
| Clinical course | Gastrointestinal symptoms at 6–12 hours (up to 36), a deceptive lull, then liver failure around day 3 and possible death around day 7[1](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf) • [8](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10824578/) |
| Case fatality | 10–30% after amatoxin poisoning with acute liver failure, without liver transplantation[2](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002) |
| Distribution | Europe and temperate Asia, with records from Iran, Turkey, Pakistan, New Zealand and introduced populations in South Australia[1](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf) |
| Habitat and season | Soil among grasses in meadows and pastures near woodland edges, fruiting in late summer to autumn[9](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.025) |
## Taxonomy and phylogeny
The species was described by Chodat and C. Martín in 1889.[1](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf) Taxonomic databases place it in [Basidiomycota](https://www.edgepedia.org/basidiomycota), Agaricomycetes, Agaricales, Agaricaceae, and the genus *Lepiota*.[10](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=201213) Molecular work has defined a clade of toxic *Lepiota* species within the genus; an updated phylogeny of this clade confirmed *L. brunneoincarnata* as widespread in Europe and temperate Asia and reported both it and *L. subincarnata* for the first time from the western Himalayan forests of Pakistan.[11](https://doi.org/10.5248/126.133)
Chemistry also separates near relatives. A Chinese HPLC study of specimens linked to three 2017 hepatic-failure poisoning incidents found α-amanitin, β-amanitin, amanin, and amaninamide in *L. brunneoincarnata*, while *L. venenata* contained only α-amanitin; the authors presented this differing amatoxin profile as chemical evidence that *L. venenata* is a distinct species.[5](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/12298093.2020.1765718) Eight *Lepiota* species were known to contain amanitins, including *L. brunneoincarnata*, *L. castanea*, *L. subincarnata*, and *L. helveola*, with *L. spiculata* added more recently.[7](https://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?pid=S0025-76802024000500579&script=sci_arttext)
## Description and identification
The fruiting body is small. Caps measure 25–50 mm across, exceptionally up to 70 mm, and are pinkish purple, reddish brown or grayish brown, with a woolly or granular surface that breaks into fine scales; the flesh stains pinkish when bruised, the spore print is white, and the smell is faintly fruity, like unripe fruit.[1](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf) A Turkish description of material from pasture records a convex to planoconvex cap of 20–40 mm with brownish to chestnut-brown scales on a whitish-pink background and a stem of 20–40 × 5–10 mm.[9](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.025) An Iranian treatment describes a pileus of 2–5.5 cm, whitish pink with concentric vinaceous-brown scales, and identifies the species by pileus and scale color, spore size and pileipellis structure.[12](https://mij.areeo.ac.ir/article_19970_8e629e3536448c9f75fb46fb39f4df4d.pdf)
Spore measurements differ between studies: 7–9.5 × 4–5 µm, ellipsoid to almond shaped and hyaline, in the Turkish report,[9](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.025) versus 8–10.5 × 4–5 µm, elliptical to amygdaloid and smooth, in the Iranian account.[12](https://mij.areeo.ac.ir/article_19970_8e629e3536448c9f75fb46fb39f4df4d.pdf)
Confusion with edible species is the main hazard. Documented mistakes include *Agaricus* species, *Macrolepiota clelandii*, *Leucoagaricus leucothites*, and *Marasmius oreades*, all of which grow in grassy areas like the deadly dapperling itself;[1](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf) toxic *Lepiota* species generally have also been mistaken for *Leucoagaricus*, *[Macrolepiota procera](https://www.edgepedia.org/macrolepiota-procera)*, and *Tricholoma terreum*.[2](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002)
## Distribution and ecology
The species occurs in Europe and western Asia, with records from Iran, Turkey, and Pakistan; it also occurs in New Zealand and, as an introduced species, in [South Australia](https://www.edgepedia.org/south-australia), where it grows in lawns, landscaped areas, and mulched garden beds.[1](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf) The Iranian and Pakistani records are recent additions to the known range, both from northern or western Himalayan forest regions.[11](https://doi.org/10.5248/126.133) • [12](https://mij.areeo.ac.ir/article_19970_8e629e3536448c9f75fb46fb39f4df4d.pdf) It fruits on soil among grasses in meadows and pastures, often close to woodland edges, in late summer to autumn.[9](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.025)
## Toxicology
**Amatoxin composition.** Chromatographic analyses have detected α-amanitin, β-amanitin, amanin, and amaninamide; one study also measured γ-amanitin, and no phallotoxins were detected.[4](https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/6/8/2336) • [6](https://doi.org/10.3109/15569543.2015.1072563) The measured concentrations vary widely between studies and specimens. One study reported α-amanitin at 0.72–1.97 mg/g and β-amanitin at 0.57–0.94 mg/g dry weight, with total toxin contents of 1.29–2.67 mg/g dry weight and twofold differences between samples from different localities.[5](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/12298093.2020.1765718) An Italian LC-UV/MS study gave α-amanitin at 0.69–0.82 mg/g dry weight.[4](https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/6/8/2336) A Turkish RP-HPLC analysis measured α-amanitin at 2.38 ± 0.70 mg/g, β-amanitin at 1.97 ± 0.52 mg/g and γ-amanitin at 0.04 ± 0.01 mg/g dry weight.[6](https://doi.org/10.3109/15569543.2015.1072563)
**Mechanism.** Amatoxins inhibit nuclear [RNA polymerase II](https://www.edgepedia.org/rna-polymerase-ii) (α-amanitin) and [RNA polymerase III](https://www.edgepedia.org/rna-polymerase-iii) (β-amanitin), halting protein synthesis and the liver's regenerative capacity, and producing hemorrhagic hepatic necrosis.[2](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002) The toxins are thermally stable and are not inactivated by boiling, cooking, drying, steaming, or freezing.[2](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002) Intestinal absorption of amatoxin is reported as 100%.[13](https://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?lng=en&nrm=iso&pid=S0212-71992002000600012&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en)
**Where the toxin sits.** The cap is richer in amatoxins than the stipe, and medium, not fully developed, fruiting bodies contain more amatoxin than fully developed ones.[6](https://doi.org/10.3109/15569543.2015.1072563)
## Poisoning, treatment and documented fatalities
**Timeline.** Severe gastrointestinal symptoms, abdominal pain, vomiting, and watery diarrhea, begin 6–12 hours after ingestion, occasionally as early as 6 hours and up to 36 hours.[1](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf) • [8](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10824578/) A period of apparent improvement follows, which is dangerous because patients may delay seeking care; in the 2024 Yunnan mother-and-son case, symptoms began 8–9 hours after ingestion but the patients sought medical attention only 27–28 hours post-ingestion.[14](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38184282/) Overt hepatotoxicity appears around day 3, and without effective intervention death from hepatic failure occurs around day 7.[8](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10824578/) The South Australian factsheet gives death 7–10 days after first symptoms.[1](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf)
**Laboratory and pathology picture.** Cases show highly elevated liver enzymes with a significantly high ALT/AST ratio, progressing in some patients to fulminant liver failure; explanted livers show necrosis and macrovesicular steatosis.[8](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10824578/) In the Turkish survivor, ALT reached 1925 IU/L on day 4, peaked at about 5124 IU/L around 90 hours post-ingestion, and was near-normal by day 8.[9](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.025) Kidney injury also occurs: one Yunnan patient developed biopsy-confirmed acute tubular necrosis, needed two rounds of continuous renal replacement therapy, and had progressed to chronic kidney insufficiency 11 months after intoxication.[14](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38184282/)
**Treatment.** Standard care includes multiple-dose activated charcoal, silibinin, N-acetylcysteine, and penicillin G, with hemoperfusion and plasma exchange used in severe cases; the Yunnan patients received all of these and were discharged after 16 and 31 days.[14](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38184282/) [Silymarin](https://www.edgepedia.org/silymarin), used in a majority of published amatoxin cases, acts as an OATP transporter inhibitor that slows amatoxin entry into the liver, dosed at 1 g orally four times daily, or as intravenous silibinin 5 mg/kg over one hour followed by a 20 mg/kg/day infusion.[15](https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431052/) [Liver transplantation](https://www.edgepedia.org/liver-transplantation) may be the only life-saving option in severe cases; rapid progression to hepatic encephalopathy, hepatorenal syndrome, or coagulopathy are indications, and early transfer to a transplant center is advised.[15](https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431052/) Without transplantation, case fatality after amatoxin poisoning with acute liver failure is 10–30%.[2](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002) A 2024 case series proposes grading mushroom poisoning into low, medium, and high risk categories for hierarchical treatment.[8](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10824578/)
**Documented fatalities.** Fatal poisonings by *L. brunneoincarnata* have been reported from France, Spain, Tunisia, and Turkey.[12](https://mij.areeo.ac.ir/article_19970_8e629e3536448c9f75fb46fb39f4df4d.pdf) A 1993 Spanish outbreak comprised 10 *Lepiota* cases, 3 of them from *L. brunneoincarnata*, with fatalities from fulminant liver failure.[2](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002) A French series of four fatal intoxications recorded deaths from acute hepatic failure between three and eleven days after ingestion, none able to benefit from transplantation; one victim died seven hours after ingestion, secondary to acute dehydration during the early phase.[16](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20870578/) Survived cases are documented from Turkey, China, and Argentina.[9](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.025) • [14](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38184282/) • [7](https://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?pid=S0025-76802024000500579&script=sci_arttext)
## By the numbers: how toxic is it compared with other deadly fungi?
The estimated median lethal dose of α-amanitin in humans is 0.1 mg/kg, about 7–8 mg in adults;[2](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002) a 2024 Argentine review gives a lethal range of 0.1–0.3 mg/kg body weight, with dose-proportional centrilobular hepatic necrosis.[7](https://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?pid=S0025-76802024000500579&script=sci_arttext) A Spanish case report cites roughly 2.5 mg amatoxin per gram of fresh mushroom, so small quantities of fresh material are potentially lethal.[13](https://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?lng=en&nrm=iso&pid=S0212-71992002000600012&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en)
Real cases show how little is needed. A Turkish patient who ate five specimens, 29.9 g wet weight (2.82 g dry), collected in pasture in October 2013, was estimated to have ingested 19.93 mg of amatoxin (10.59 mg α-, 9.18 mg β- and 0.16 mg γ-amanitin), about 0.28 mg/kg, slightly below an estimated lethal oral threshold of about 0.32 mg/kg; the patient survived.[9](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.025) The South Australian factsheet states that three to four mushrooms can cause liver damage and that 100 g may cause severe liver damage,[1](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf) but the Turkish authors note that some studies argue at least 100 g must be eaten for fatal hepatotoxicity, a result that differs from their severe outcome after roughly 30 g.[9](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.025) In the Yunnan case, LC-MS/MS measured 123.5 µg/g α-amanitin and 45.7 µg/g β-amanitin on a fresh-weight basis in the consumed mushrooms.[14](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38184282/)
Against other species, *L. brunneoincarnata* is not the most concentrated amatoxin source in its own genus: *L. josserandii* was reported at 3.99–4.39 mg/g dry weight α-amanitin, roughly five times the 0.69–0.82 mg/g measured in *L. brunneoincarnata* in the same study,[4](https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/6/8/2336) and Iranian authors state that *L. josserandii* has the highest α-amanitin level among *Lepiota*, about three times higher than the amount found in *Amanita* species.[12](https://mij.areeo.ac.ir/article_19970_8e629e3536448c9f75fb46fb39f4df4d.pdf) The genus as a whole carries about 400 species worldwide with about 20 poisonous species, twice as many as *Amanita* (n = 9).[2](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002)
The practical lesson of the numbers is the mismatch between size and lethality. A few tens of grams of a cap the width of a coin can deliver a near-lethal dose, and the genus fruits in lawns and pastures where people gather *Marasmius oreades* or parasol mushrooms, species with which the deadly dapperling has been confused.[1](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf) • [9](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.025)
## Recent developments
Since 2023, several changes are on record. China's 2024 surveillance formally ranked *L. brunneoincarnata* among the country's most dangerous amatoxin species, with 14 incidents, 32 patients and 2 deaths.[3](https://doi.org/10.46234/ccdcw2025.106) A loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay run at 63 °C now allows rapid identification of the species in China and can detect it even in boiled mushroom samples, a tool for emergency diagnosis when the mushroom itself has been cooked.[17](https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2026.1809128) On the clinical side, the 2024 hepatotoxicity case series introduced risk-stratified grading of mushroom poisoning into low, medium, and high risk categories for hierarchical treatment.[8](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10824578/)
## References
1. [State Herbarium of South Australia Factsheet: *Lepiota brunneoincarnata*](https://data.environment.sa.gov.au/Content/Publications/SHFacts%20Lepiota.pdf)
2. [Amatoxin-Containing Mushroom Poisonings: Species, Toxidromes, Treatments, and Outcomes, Wilderness & Environmental Medicine](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1016/j.wem.2017.10.002)
3. [Mushroom Poisoning Outbreaks — China, 2024, China CDC Weekly](https://doi.org/10.46234/ccdcw2025.106)
4. [Profiling of Amatoxins and Phallotoxins in the Genus *Lepiota*, Toxins](https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/6/8/2336)
5. [Determination of Amatoxins in *Lepiota brunneoincarnata* and *Lepiota venenata* by HPLC, Mycobiology](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/12298093.2020.1765718)
6. [Toxin content and toxicological significance in different tissues and development stages of *Lepiota brunneoincarnata*, Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods](https://doi.org/10.3109/15569543.2015.1072563)
7. [Tratamiento exitoso de la intoxicación por *Lepiota brunneoincarnata* en Argentina, Medicina (Buenos Aires), 2024](https://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?pid=S0025-76802024000500579&script=sci_arttext)
8. [Severe Hepatotoxicity in Mushroom Poisoning by *Lepiota brunneoincarnata*: A Case Series with Review on Liver Function Tests and Liver Histopathology](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10824578/)
9. [A Case Study: Rare *Lepiota brunneoincarnata* Poisoning (Sakarya, Turkey), Wilderness & Environmental Medicine](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.025)
10. [NCBI Taxonomy Browser: *Lepiota brunneoincarnata*](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=201213)
11. [*Lepiota brunneoincarnata* and *L. subincarnata*: distribution and phylogeny, Mycotaxon](https://doi.org/10.5248/126.133)
12. [New records of the genus *Lepiota* for Iran, including two deadly poisonous species, Mycologia Iranica](https://mij.areeo.ac.ir/article_19970_8e629e3536448c9f75fb46fb39f4df4d.pdf)
13. [Intoxicación fatal por *Lepiota brunneoincarnata*, Revista Clínica Española](https://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?lng=en&nrm=iso&pid=S0212-71992002000600012&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en)
14. [Acute hepatic and kidney injury after ingestion of *Lepiota brunneoincarnata*: Report of 2 cases, Toxicon, 2024](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38184282/)
15. [Amatoxin Mushroom Toxicity, StatPearls/NCBI Bookshelf](https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431052/)
16. [Four cases of deadly intoxication by *Lepiota brunneoincarnata*](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20870578/)
17. [Rapid identification of *Lepiota brunneoincarnata* in China with loop-mediated isothermal amplification, Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology](https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2026.1809128)
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*Topic: Encyclopedia › Life and health › Microorganisms and fungi › Fungi and mycology › Basidiomycete taxa › Agaricomycetes › Agaricales › Agaricaceae › Other Agaricaceae genera › Lepiota*
*Initially written Sep 17, 2026 · Reviewed: Oct 21, 2026 · Edited: Oct 15, 2026; Oct 21, 2026 · Last review: Oct 21, 2026*
*Copyright 2026 EdgeChat AI, a subsidiary of Biostate AI.*
License: Edgepedia Community License 1.0, https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license