# Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency Bank
**Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency Bank (MUDRA Bank)** was a development finance institution announced in India's Union Budget 2015-16 with a corpus of ₹200 billion (₹20,000 crore) and a credit guarantee corpus of ₹30 billion (₹3,000 crore), to be created through statutory enactment as a refinancer for micro-enterprise loans.[1](https://www.pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=121454) Pending that legislation, the government launched Micro Units Development Refinance Agency Ltd. on 8 April 2015 as a wholly owned subsidiary of the [Small Industries Development Bank of India](https://www.edgepedia.org/small-industries-development-bank-of-india) (SIDBI), registered as a Non-Banking Financial Institution rather than a licensed bank.[1](https://www.pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=121454) • [2](https://www.ijiras.com/2025/Special_Issue/paper_30.pdf) The "Bank" in the name never became a bank: in January 2016 the government proposed converting it into one, and the [Reserve Bank of India](https://www.edgepedia.org/reserve-bank-of-india) (RBI) rejected the proposal because an NBFC cannot become a bank without a license.[3](https://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/facts-and-fiction-of-mudra-loans-121072500861_1.html) MUDRA instead operates the Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY), a collateral-free loan scheme delivered entirely through partner lenders.
| Key fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Origin | Announced in Union Budget 2015-16 (₹200 billion (₹20,000 crore) corpus, ₹30 billion (₹3,000 crore) guarantee fund), following a 2014 committee recommendation; launched 8 April 2015 as a SIDBI-owned NBFI pending statutory enactment[1](https://www.pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=121454) • [4](https://anantamias.com/mudra-yojana/) |
| Not a bank | RBI rejected the January 2016 proposal to make MUDRA a licensed bank; it refinances and guarantees through Member Lending Institutions instead of lending directly[3](https://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/facts-and-fiction-of-mudra-loans-121072500861_1.html) • [5](https://www.theeconomicsjournal.com/archives/2019/vol2issue1/PartA/6-2-12-902.pdf) |
| Loan tiers | Shishu up to ₹50,000; Kishor above ₹50,000 up to ₹500,000 (₹5 lakh); Tarun above ₹500,000 (₹5 lakh) up to ₹1 million (₹10 lakh); Tarun Plus above ₹1 million (₹10 lakh) and up to ₹2 million (₹20 lakh) for successful prior Tarun borrowers, effective 24 October 2024[6](https://financialservices.gov.in/pradhan-mantri-mudra-yojana-pmmy) |
| Scale | 520.7 million (52.07 crore) accounts sanctioned and ₹32.4 trillion (₹32.40 lakh crore) disbursed as on 28 February 2025[6](https://financialservices.gov.in/pradhan-mantri-mudra-yojana-pmmy) |
| Borrowers | 66% of loans to women (June 2026); 21% to SC/ST borrowers; collateral not required[7](https://sansad.in/getFile/lsapps/loksabhaquestions/annex/188/AU2415_6LDSf5.pdf) • [6](https://financialservices.gov.in/pradhan-mantri-mudra-yojana-pmmy) |
| Asset quality | Official NPAs as on March 2026: Shishu 1.37%, Kishor 2.21%, Tarun 2.43%, Tarun Plus 0.30%; average gross NPA 2.21% in FY24[7](https://sansad.in/getFile/lsapps/loksabhaquestions/annex/188/AU2415_6LDSf5.pdf) • [8](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/finance/lenders-add-nearly-25000-beneficiaries-under-tarun-plus-category-of-mudra-yojana/articleshow/120066670.cms) |
| Risk sharing | Loans are covered at portfolio level by the Credit Guarantee Fund for Micro Units (CGFMU), managed by NCGTC, with cover of 50% of the loan amount, subject to a ceiling on cumulative payouts[9](https://sbi.bank.in/documents/13958/43951007/10%2BYears%2BPMMY_SBI%2BReport.pdf/93f97f57-e655-dcfc-0733-cd638e82fe0e?t=1743585995479) • [4](https://anantamias.com/mudra-yojana/) |
## What MUDRA is and how it is structured
The Budget 2015-16 speech announced a Micro Units Development Refinance Agency Bank through statutory enactment, with the ₹200 billion (₹20,000 crore) corpus and ₹30 billion (₹3,000 crore) credit guarantee corpus.[1](https://www.pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=121454) Because Parliament did not pass the enabling law, the interim vehicle was Micro Units Development Refinance Agency Ltd., registered as a company in March 2015 under the [Companies Act 2013](https://www.edgepedia.org/companies-act-2013) and as a Non-Banking Finance Institution with the RBI on 7 April 2015, and launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 8 April 2015 at Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi.[1](https://www.pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=121454) • [2](https://www.ijiras.com/2025/Special_Issue/paper_30.pdf) A 2014 committee headed by [Vinod Rai](https://www.edgepedia.org/vinod-rai) had recommended the structure.[4](https://anantamias.com/mudra-yojana/)
**Why a new agency.** India already had three sectoral refinance agencies: the [National Housing Bank](https://www.edgepedia.org/national-housing-bank) (set up July 1988), NABARD (July 1982) for agriculture, and SIDBI (April 1990) for micro, small, and medium enterprises.[10](https://bankerstrust.in/column/do-we-need-mudra-bank/) SIDBI, created under an Act of Parliament on 2 April 1990, is the principal financial institution for MSME promotion, financing, and development, and its refinance-to-banks portfolio stood at ₹3.853 trillion (₹385,327 crore) as on 31 March 2025, far larger than MUDRA's refinance book.[11](https://www.sidbi.in/annualreport/AnnualReport202425/business-performance.php) Critics asked why a fourth refinance agency was needed when the existing ones, in one commentator's judgment, could not claim success by any yardstick.[10](https://bankerstrust.in/column/do-we-need-mudra-bank/)
**The bank that never was.** By January 2016 the government wanted MUDRA to be a full bank, but the RBI rejected the conversion because an NBFC cannot become a bank without a license.[3](https://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/facts-and-fiction-of-mudra-loans-121072500861_1.html) MUDRA's actual functions are refinance support to Member Lending Institutions (MLIs), monitoring PMMY data through a web portal, and facilitating loan guarantees; it does not lend directly to borrowers.[2](https://www.ijiras.com/2025/Special_Issue/paper_30.pdf) • [5](https://www.theeconomicsjournal.com/archives/2019/vol2issue1/PartA/6-2-12-902.pdf) MLIs include public sector banks, private sector banks, foreign banks, regional rural banks, small finance banks, NBFCs, MFIs, and NBFC-MFIs, and the loans they make under PMMY require no collateral.[6](https://financialservices.gov.in/pradhan-mantri-mudra-yojana-pmmy)
## The loan tiers and how lending works
PMMY defines four tiers by loan size: **Shishu** covers loans up to ₹50,000; **Kishor** covers above ₹50,000 and up to ₹500,000 (₹5 lakh); **Tarun** covers above ₹500,000 (₹5 lakh) and up to ₹1 million (₹10 lakh); and **Tarun Plus**, effective 24 October 2024, covers above ₹1 million (₹10 lakh) and up to ₹2 million (₹20 lakh) for entrepreneurs who have availed and successfully repaid previous Tarun loans.[6](https://financialservices.gov.in/pradhan-mantri-mudra-yojana-pmmy) Loans finance income-generating small business activity in manufacturing, processing, services, or trading, including agriculture-allied activities such as poultry, dairy, and beekeeping; the scheme explicitly excludes consumption or personal needs, and working capital is accessed through the RuPay MUDRA card.[12](https://www.govtschemes.in/sites/default/files/2022-03/Mudra%20Loan%20Features.pdf) • [13](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2249915&lang=1®=3)
The collateral-free character rests partly on pre-existing regulation: under the RBI Master Circular on MSME lending of 1 July 2014, banks were mandated not to accept collateral for loans up to ₹1 million (₹10 lakh) to micro and small enterprises.[12](https://www.govtschemes.in/sites/default/files/2022-03/Mudra%20Loan%20Features.pdf) MUDRA's own refinance assistance to lenders carries a maximum tenor of 36 months.[12](https://www.govtschemes.in/sites/default/files/2022-03/Mudra%20Loan%20Features.pdf)
## By the numbers
Cumulative disbursement since launch reached 520.7 million (52.07 crore) accounts sanctioned, ₹33.19 trillion (₹33.19 lakh crore) sanctioned and ₹32.4 trillion (₹32.40 lakh crore) disbursed as on 28 February 2025.[6](https://financialservices.gov.in/pradhan-mantri-mudra-yojana-pmmy) The average loan size has risen from about ₹40,000 to ₹105,000 (₹1.05 lakh).[8](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/finance/lenders-add-nearly-25000-beneficiaries-under-tarun-plus-category-of-mudra-yojana/articleshow/120066670.cms) Growth has been uneven: disbursement growth slowed to 2% during the COVID years from 2019-20 to 2021-22, then rebounded with 36% growth in 2022-23 and 18% in 2023-24.[14](https://factly.in/data-between-2015-16-and-2023-24-share-of-kishore-accounts-under-pmmy-increases-from-6-to-35/)
**Shishu dominance.** Small loans dominate the count but not the money. In 2018-19, 89% of PMMY loans were Shishu, with an average Shishu loan of ₹28,074 against an overall average of ₹54,072.[15](https://www.rgics.org/employment/mudra-the-art-of-taking-credit-for-credit-given-by-banks-in-normal-course-of-their-business/) Over the longer run, Shishu accounts numbered 88 million (8.80 crore) with ₹2.42 trillion (₹2.42 lakh crore) disbursed, against 27.9 million (2.79 crore) Kishor accounts with ₹4.87 trillion (₹4.87 lakh crore) and 5.5 million (55 lakh) Tarun accounts with ₹4.67 trillion (₹4.67 lakh crore).[13](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2249915&lang=1®=3) The mix has shifted upward over time: the share of Kishor accounts rose from 6% in 2015-16 to 35% by 2023-24.[14](https://factly.in/data-between-2015-16-and-2023-24-share-of-kishore-accounts-under-pmmy-increases-from-6-to-35/)
**Women borrowers.** Women's share of accounts is high but their share of money is lower, reflecting the small average loan. Women accounted for 59.81% of total loan accounts but only 37.45% of the disbursed amount in the April 2026 factsheet; a parliamentary answer put 66% of loans to women as on June 2026.[16](https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2026/apr/doc202648842601.pdf) • [7](https://sansad.in/getFile/lsapps/loksabhaquestions/annex/188/AU2415_6LDSf5.pdf) In FY17 the small-finance-bank and MFI channel sanctioned 60% of all MUDRA loans, and loans to women formed 98% of Shishu loans and 73% of all MUDRA loans through that channel.[17](https://dvararesearch.com/is-there-bang-for-the-mudra-buck/)
## How it compares with SIDBI, NABARD and microfinance
MUDRA sits among larger, older institutions with overlapping mandates. SIDBI is the principal MSME development institution, with a refinance-to-banks portfolio of ₹3.853 trillion (₹385,327 crore) as on 31 March 2025 across about 2.983 million (29.83 lakh) MSE customers; its MFI refinance portfolio, by contrast, fell 31% to ₹60.54 billion (₹6,054 crore) in FY2025 amid microfinance sector stress.[11](https://www.sidbi.in/annualreport/AnnualReport202425/business-performance.php) NABARD operates a distinct small-borrower channel, the SHG-Bank Linkage Programme, which reached 177.5 million (17.75 crore) households with 14.42 million (144.21 lakh) self-help groups savings-linked, of which 7.741 million (77.41 lakh) are credit-linked, in 2023-24; this group-based model differs from MUDRA's individual enterprise loans.[18](https://www.nabard.org/auth/writereaddata/tender/0808244223NABARD-SOMFI%20%20%20%20%20%20%2020232024%20%20%20%20%20%2030072024.pdf)
MUDRA's own refinance role is narrow. In five years till 2020 it disbursed ₹254.9 billion (₹25,494.65 crore) of refinance, of which ₹30.18 billion (₹3,018.5 crore; 11.84%) went to MFIs, and its refinance equaled just 2.13% of all PMMY loans disbursed.[3](https://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/facts-and-fiction-of-mudra-loans-121072500861_1.html) Earlier data point the same way: of ₹128.3 billion (₹12,833 crore) refinanced over 2015-18, about a third went to NBFCs and MFIs and the bulk to banks that did not need refinance.[15](https://www.rgics.org/employment/mudra-the-art-of-taking-credit-for-credit-given-by-banks-in-normal-course-of-their-business/) Of 46 registered lenders, only 13 availed the credit guarantee facility in 2016-17, covering ₹69.1 billion (₹6,910 crore) in loans.[17](https://dvararesearch.com/is-there-bang-for-the-mudra-buck/) A 2019 RBI inspection found MUDRA had been allotted ₹400 billion (₹40,000 crore) under the Priority Sector Shortfall Fund since inception but had drawn only ₹225 billion (₹22,500 crore).[3](https://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/facts-and-fiction-of-mudra-loans-121072500861_1.html)
## Recent developments
The Union Budget 2024-25, announced on 23 July 2024, doubled the PMMY loan ceiling from ₹1 million (₹10 lakh) to ₹2 million (₹20 lakh), effective 24 October 2024, and the Department of Financial Services created the Tarun Plus category for prior successful Tarun borrowers.[19](https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2024/oct/doc20241029426401.pdf) • [20](https://www.businesstoday.in/personal-finance/investment/story/diwali-cheer-loan-limit-under-pradhan-mantri-mudra-yojana-hiked-to-rs-20-lakh-check-eligibility-other-details-451522-2024-10-25) The Tarun Plus scheme was notified on 25 October 2024, and in four months of FY25 lenders sanctioned 24,557 Tarun Plus loans amounting to ₹37.9 billion (₹3,790 crore).[8](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/finance/lenders-add-nearly-25000-beneficiaries-under-tarun-plus-category-of-mudra-yojana/articleshow/120066670.cms) Loans up to ₹2 million (₹20 lakh) fall under CGFMU guarantee coverage.[21](https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/new-tarun-plus-loan-category-launched-by-finmin-under-mudra-scheme-loans-up-to-20-lakh/article68794543.ece)
Asset quality has improved on official numbers while remaining under scrutiny. The parliamentary answer records a declining NPA trend from March 2022 (Shishu 1.88%, Kishor 4.28%, Tarun 2.96%) to March 2026 (Shishu 1.37%, Kishor 2.21%, Tarun 2.43%, Tarun Plus 0.30%).[7](https://sansad.in/getFile/lsapps/loksabhaquestions/annex/188/AU2415_6LDSf5.pdf) A summary of the RBI Financial Stability Report of June 2025 puts the PMMY NPA ratio at 3.4%, up from 2.3% in 2019-20 but below the broader MSME segment NPA of 4.2%.[4](https://anantamias.com/mudra-yojana/) The Standing Committee on Finance (2024) flagged rising Shishu NPAs and recommended a graded interest subvention and a streamlined small-amount recovery framework, and the RBI tightened classification norms for small-ticket loans effective April 2025.[4](https://anantamias.com/mudra-yojana/)
## Assessments and controversies
**Additionality of credit.** The central critique is that PMMY relabeled lending that would have happened anyway. RBI data show credit growth for loans below ₹1 million (₹10 lakh), excluding personal and agricultural loans, at 7.9% per year in 2016-18 against 6.6% per year in 2013-15, no marked increase after MUDRA.[15](https://www.rgics.org/employment/mudra-the-art-of-taking-credit-for-credit-given-by-banks-in-normal-course-of-their-business/) Dvara Research, a development-finance research institute, found sustained growth only in loans below ₹25,000 in FY2016 with a decline in new accounts in FY17, and concluded that MUDRA did not significantly alter secular trends in lending to the target segments.[17](https://dvararesearch.com/is-there-bang-for-the-mudra-buck/)
**Job creation claims.** A Ministry of Labour and [Employment](https://www.edgepedia.org/employment) survey estimated PMMY generated 11.2 million (1.12 crore) net additional employment from 2015 to 2018, with women accounting for 6.9 million (69 lakh; 62%) of the increase.[7](https://sansad.in/getFile/lsapps/loksabhaquestions/annex/188/AU2415_6LDSf5.pdf) • [22](https://www.ijmrsetm.com/admin/img/10_Mudra.pdf) The study's history is contested: the Labour Bureau report was slated for release in March 2019 ahead of the general election, was held back, and the Bureau was asked to reconcile the data; the version released in October 2019 showed over 11 million jobs created, while the unreleased first draft reportedly told a different story.[3](https://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/facts-and-fiction-of-mudra-loans-121072500861_1.html) Independent evidence is thinner. A survey of 384 MUDRA borrowers in Pune found benefits in income generation and business expansion but no significant impact on employment generation or standard of living (p > 0.05), and financial independence was not achieved for women entrepreneurs.[23](https://doi.org/10.46281/ijfb.v7i1.1346)
**Income adequacy.** The Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies estimated that a typical Shishu loan of ₹28,074 could yield gross annual income of about ₹22,400 under generous assumptions, below the per capita income of ₹111,000 (₹1.11 lakh) in 2017-18, which questions whether such loans support self-employment rather than consumption smoothing.[15](https://www.rgics.org/employment/mudra-the-art-of-taking-credit-for-credit-given-by-banks-in-normal-course-of-their-business/)
**Lender type and risk bearing.** NPA levels differ sharply by lender. Per the KPMG PMMY Impact Assessment 2023, public sector banks including RRBs account for 22.6% of NPA accounts and 16.9% of NPA amounts, against 4.3% and 2.9% for private banks, 2.5% and 1.1% for MFIs, and 1.3% and 0.5% for NBFCs.[24](https://www.managementpaper.net/archives/2025/vol7issue2/PartC/7-2-49-176.pdf) Risk is shared through CGFMU, a trust fund set up by the [Government of India](https://www.edgepedia.org/government-of-india) and managed by NCGTC as trustee, providing a portfolio-level guarantee against default; ₹39 billion (₹3,900 crore) has been allocated to it, and the cover is 50% of the loan amount with a ceiling on cumulative payouts.[9](https://sbi.bank.in/documents/13958/43951007/10%2BYears%2BPMMY_SBI%2BReport.pdf/93f97f57-e655-dcfc-0733-cd638e82fe0e?t=1743585995479) • [7](https://sansad.in/getFile/lsapps/loksabhaquestions/annex/188/AU2415_6LDSf5.pdf) • [4](https://anantamias.com/mudra-yojana/) Because the guarantee pays only half of a bad loan, the lending bank retains the other half, and the low MUDRA refinance share (about 2% of PMMY lending) means the refinancing agency bears little direct credit risk; the incentive concern raised in reporting is that a 50% guarantee can encourage over-leverage if defaults rise.[3](https://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/facts-and-fiction-of-mudra-loans-121072500861_1.html) • [25](https://www.fountainink.in/reportage/mudra-promise-and-reality)
## References
1. [MUDRA Bank announcement, Press Information Bureau (Budget 2015-16)](https://www.pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=121454)
2. [Paper on MUDRA's formation, IJIRAS](https://www.ijiras.com/2025/Special_Issue/paper_30.pdf)
3. [Banker's Trust: Tamal Bandyopadhyay on the facts and fiction of Mudra loans, Business Standard](https://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/facts-and-fiction-of-mudra-loans-121072500861_1.html)
4. [Anantam IAS – Mudra Yojana: Shishu, Kishore, Tarun Categories and ₹20 Lakh Loan Limit](https://anantamias.com/mudra-yojana/)
5. [MUDRA Yojana in India: An In-depth Analysis of its Performance, The Economics Journal](https://www.theeconomicsjournal.com/archives/2019/vol2issue1/PartA/6-2-12-902.pdf)
6. [Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY), Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Finance](https://financialservices.gov.in/pradhan-mantri-mudra-yojana-pmmy)
7. [Lok Sabha Unstarred Question No. 2415: Loans Sanctioned under PMMY](https://sansad.in/getFile/lsapps/loksabhaquestions/annex/188/AU2415_6LDSf5.pdf)
8. [Lenders add nearly 25,000 beneficiaries under Tarun Plus category of Mudra Yojana, The Economic Times](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/finance/lenders-add-nearly-25000-beneficiaries-under-tarun-plus-category-of-mudra-yojana/articleshow/120066670.cms)
9. [SBI Report: 10 Years of PMMY](https://sbi.bank.in/documents/13958/43951007/10%2BYears%2BPMMY_SBI%2BReport.pdf/93f97f57-e655-dcfc-0733-cd638e82fe0e?t=1743585995479)
10. [Do we need Mudra Bank? Tamal Bandyopadhyay, Banker's Trust](https://bankerstrust.in/column/do-we-need-mudra-bank/)
11. [SIDBI Annual Report 2024-25: Business Performance](https://www.sidbi.in/annualreport/AnnualReport202425/business-performance.php)
12. [MUDRA Loan Scheme – Salient Features, govtschemes.in](https://www.govtschemes.in/sites/default/files/2022-03/Mudra%20Loan%20Features.pdf)
13. [PIB Press Release on PMMY progress](https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2249915&lang=1®=3)
14. [FACTLY: Share of 'Kishore' accounts under PMMY increases from 6% to 35%](https://factly.in/data-between-2015-16-and-2023-24-share-of-kishore-accounts-under-pmmy-increases-from-6-to-35/)
15. [MUDRA: The art of taking credit for credit given by banks in normal course of their business, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies](https://www.rgics.org/employment/mudra-the-art-of-taking-credit-for-credit-given-by-banks-in-normal-course-of-their-business/)
16. [PIB: 11 Years of Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (April 2026)](https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2026/apr/doc202648842601.pdf)
17. [Is there bang for the Mudra buck? Dvara Research](https://dvararesearch.com/is-there-bang-for-the-mudra-buck/)
18. [NABARD Status of Microfinance in India 2023-24](https://www.nabard.org/auth/writereaddata/tender/0808244223NABARD-SOMFI%20%20%20%20%20%20%2020232024%20%20%20%20%20%2030072024.pdf)
19. [PIB document on PMMY loan limit enhancement and Tarun Plus (October 2024)](https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2024/oct/doc20241029426401.pdf)
20. [Loan limit under Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana hiked to Rs 20 lakh, Business Today](https://www.businesstoday.in/personal-finance/investment/story/diwali-cheer-loan-limit-under-pradhan-mantri-mudra-yojana-hiked-to-rs-20-lakh-check-eligibility-other-details-451522-2024-10-25)
21. [New 'Tarun Plus' loan category launched by FinMin under Mudra scheme, The Hindu BusinessLine](https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/new-tarun-plus-loan-category-launched-by-finmin-under-mudra-scheme-loans-up-to-20-lakh/article68794543.ece)
22. [MUDRA scheme achievements paper, IJMRSETM](https://www.ijmrsetm.com/admin/img/10_Mudra.pdf)
23. [Financing Micro and Small Enterprises: Assessing the Impact of MUDRA Loans in an Emerging Economy](https://doi.org/10.46281/ijfb.v7i1.1346)
24. [MUDRA Matters: A comparative study of public vs. private sector banks in driving financial inclusion](https://www.managementpaper.net/archives/2025/vol7issue2/PartC/7-2-49-176.pdf)
25. [Mudra: Promise and reality, Fountain Ink](https://www.fountainink.in/reportage/mudra-promise-and-reality)
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*Topic: Encyclopedia › Society and history › Economics and business › Finance › Development finance and multilateral institutions*
*Initially written Sep 17, 2026 · Reviewed: Sep 17, 2026; Sep 30, 2026; Oct 10, 2026 · Edited: Sep 30, 2026; Oct 10, 2026; Oct 11, 2026; Oct 15, 2026 · Last review: Oct 10, 2026*
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License: Edgepedia Community License 1.0, https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license