# Perovskite solar cell
A perovskite solar cell is a photovoltaic device whose light-absorbing layer is a metal-halide compound with the crystal formula ABX3, where A is a monovalent cation (such as methylammonium, formamidinium, or cesium), B a divalent metal (commonly lead or tin), and X a halide anion (such as iodide, bromide, or chloride)[1](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10890723/). The name comes from the mineral perovskite (CaTiO3), first described in 1839 by Gustav Rose; solar-cell use began in 2009 in dye-sensitized cells, and certified efficiencies have since climbed from 3.5% to above 26% for single-junction cells and past 34% for perovskite-silicon tandems[2](http://www.amjee.org/article/10.11648/j.ajee.20261402.14) • [1](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10890723/) • [3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf).
| Key fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Absorber formula | ABX3: A = typically methylammonium, formamidinium, or cesium; B = commonly lead or tin; X = typically iodide, bromide, or chloride[1](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10890723/) |
| Record efficiencies | Single-junction cell 26.1-26.9%; perovskite/silicon tandem 33.7-35.2% (values differ by area, date, and certifying lab)[4](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf) • [5](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf) |
| Theoretical limits | 33.7% single-junction Shockley-Queisser limit; about 44-45% for perovskite/silicon tandems[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf) • [6](https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/solar/perovskites-mass-production-tandem-fremont) |
| Lead content | About 0.5-1.0 g Pb/m2 in a single-junction cell; tin-based alternatives are 3-5% less efficient[7](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3f87/3c99cedb82d44ed71cbaa117c97a87f09391.pdf) |
| Stability demonstrated | Over 20,000 h outdoor (lab devices, ISOS-O); over 10,000 h for a 10 × 10 cm2 printable module under AM 1.5G[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf) • [4](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf) |
| Certification | GCL, UtmoLight, and other Chinese makers passed IEC 61215 (and GCL also IEC 61739); no perovskite-specific IEC standard yet exists[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf) • [4](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf) • [16](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2025/ee/d4ee05613b) |
| Commercial status | GCL announced a 1.2 m × 2.4 m gigawatt-scale perovskite line in December 2023; Oxford PV commercialized tandem modules, Qcells and Tandem PV announced tandem cell and module records, and RenShine connected a single-junction perovskite rooftop station[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf) • [8](https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/qcells-achieves-world-record-efficiency-for-commercially-scalable-perovskite-silicon-tandem-solar-cell-302335297.html) • [9](https://www.pv-magazine.com/2026/06/01/tandem-pv-announces-30-4-efficient-perovskite-silicon-demonstration-module/) |
## What makes a perovskite a perovskite
Perovskites absorb light unusually well for a thin film. Compared with dye-sensitized and organic solar cells, they combine a high absorption coefficient, a long charge-carrier diffusion length, a low recombination rate, and high defect tolerance, meaning a modest density of crystal defects does not destroy performance[1](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10890723/).
## How the cell converts light to current
A conventional device is a five-layer stack: a transparent conducting substrate (ITO or FTO), a hole transport layer (HTL), the perovskite absorber, an electron transport layer (ETL), and a metal electrode (gold or silver)[1](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10890723/). Absorbed photons generate electron-hole pairs, which separate at the perovskite/transport-layer interfaces; the ETL collects electrons to one electrode and the HTL collects holes to the other, producing photocurrent and, under open-circuit conditions, an open-circuit voltage[1](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10890723/).
A distinctive complication is that metal-halide perovskites are mixed electronic and ionic conductors with a low activation energy for forming mobile ions. Mobile ions cause current-voltage hysteresis, halide segregation under illumination, and irreversible performance changes under stress, and they are central to the stability problem[10](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2024/ee/d4ee01898b).
## Efficiency records and limits
Record-efficiency figures differ across credible sources because records moved quickly through 2024-2026 and measurements differ in cell area and certification lab; ranges with dates and areas are more informative than any single number.
- **Single-junction cells.** A 2025 review lists 26.1% certified for a 0.05127 cm2 cell ([University of Science and Technology of China](https://www.edgepedia.org/university-of-science-and-technology-of-china)), falling to 24.67% at 1 cm2[4](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf). The MRS Bulletin reports 26.7% as of 2024[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf), and the Fraunhofer ISE Photovoltaics Report gives 26.9%[5](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf).
- **Perovskite/silicon tandems.** KAUST held a 33.7% record on 1.0035 cm2[4](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf); LONGi then reached 34.6%, beaten by an NREL-measured result, with a 33.0% certified result on a much larger 261 cm2 aperture[11](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pip.3919); MRS Bulletin cites 34.7% in 2024[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf) and Fraunhofer lists 35.2%[5](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf). In 2024 tandems surpassed the single-junction Shockley-Queisser limit of 33.7% for the first time[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf).
- **Other configurations.** All-perovskite tandems reached a certified 29.1% with a tandem open-circuit voltage of 2.21 V[12](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41563-024-02073-x), and a flexible perovskite/silicon tandem reached a certified 33.6% with a record 2.015 V open-circuit voltage, retaining 91% of initial efficiency after 5,000 bending cycles at a 17.6 mm radius[13](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09849-4).
The theoretical ceiling for a single junction is the Shockley-Queisser limit of 33.7%[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf); dual-junction perovskite/silicon tandems have a theoretical limit around 44%[10](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2024/ee/d4ee01898b), a figure industry commentary rounds to roughly 45%[6](https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/solar/perovskites-mass-production-tandem-fremont). Note that the silicon-specific limit is 29.5%, lower than the generic single-junction limit, because of silicon's bandgap (energy needed to free an electron in a semiconductor, setting its voltage limit)[10](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2024/ee/d4ee01898b). Efficiency drops sharply with area: the small-cell record of 26.1% falls to 24.67% at 1 cm2 and to 18.6-19.9% at around 810 cm2, reflecting film non-uniformity, pinholes, and interconnection losses[4](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf).
## Stability and degradation
Degradation is driven synergistically by air, heat, light, and electric field, through trapped-charge-driven chemical reactions with oxygen and water and through ion migration and segregation[14](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10811515/). Ion migration, phase separation, poor interface stability, and oxygen and moisture stress are the attributed causes; mitigation includes depletion regions that confine mobile ions, inorganic transport layers such as NiOx, ALD aluminum-oxide passivation, and improved encapsulation[15](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40820-025-01744-x).
Demonstrated lifetimes have improved substantially but remain short of the 25-30-year service target. Laboratory devices have shown over 20,000 h of outdoor stability under the ISOS-O protocol and several thousand hours at 85 °C under ISOS-L conditions[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf). A 10 × 10 cm2 printable module exceeded 10,000 h under AM 1.5G illumination[4](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf). Under ISOS-L-1 testing, [T80 lifetime](https://www.edgepedia.org/t80-lifetime) (time to 80% of initial efficiency) is typically under 1,000 h for unoptimized cells and over 2,000 h with encapsulation[7](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3f87/3c99cedb82d44ed71cbaa117c97a87f09391.pdf). Rayleigh Solar Tech reported zero degradation for a 15 cm × 15 cm glass module after more than 5,000 h of outdoor testing[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf). The gap is real: perovskite cells have degraded under temperature, humidity, oxygen, and light on much smaller timescales than the 30-year operational lifetime needed for deployment[10](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2024/ee/d4ee01898b).
## Manufacturing and scale-up
On large substrates, non-uniform film formation, pinhole defects, and incomplete crystallization cause thickness variation above 100 cm2[7](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3f87/3c99cedb82d44ed71cbaa117c97a87f09391.pdf). Monolithic modules are patterned by three laser scribing steps (P1, P2, P3) that define series-interconnected sub-cells; interconnection resistance and inactive dead area push module efficiency below single-cell values[7](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3f87/3c99cedb82d44ed71cbaa117c97a87f09391.pdf).
Record module efficiencies by size class (2024) show the area penalty directly[16](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2025/ee/d4ee05613b):
| Class | Area | Efficiency | Maker |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minimodule | 27.22 cm2 | 23.30% | EPFL |
| Submodule | 215.53 cm2 | 20.6% | KRICT/Unitest |
| Module | 810 cm2 | 20.7% | Wuxi UtmoLight (passed IEC 61215, IEC 61730) |
| Standard module | 7,200 cm2 | 18.4% | Renshine Solar |
| Large module | 20,000 cm2 | 19.04% | Kunshan GCL |
Pilot lines at roughly megawatt scale are operational at Oxford PV, Saule Technologies, and Microquanta, but GW-scale production has not yet been demonstrated; Saule announced a 100 MW/yr line in 2024[7](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3f87/3c99cedb82d44ed71cbaa117c97a87f09391.pdf). Announced capacities include Microquanta 120 MW (full capacity), GCL-[Perovskite](https://www.edgepedia.org/perovskite) 100 MW, Oxford PV 100 MW tandem, Wondersolar 200 MW, and UtmoLight 150 MW[4](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf). Techno-economic modeling finds factory throughput must exceed 1 GW/year for tandems to compete in cost with present single-junction modules[17](https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(24)00466-5).
## By the numbers
- **Lead content.** About 0.5-1.0 g Pb/m2 in a single-junction cell, or 0.4-0.8 g/m2 in the perovskite portion of a tandem; most cells above 23% efficiency still use lead, and EU RoHS exemptions are under review[7](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3f87/3c99cedb82d44ed71cbaa117c97a87f09391.pdf). Reported leaching tests of perovskite films have exceeded the US RCRA limit of 5 mg/L, indicating that damaged films may be unsuitable for direct landfill disposal[2](http://www.amjee.org/article/10.11648/j.ajee.20261402.14).
- **Cost.** Current manufacturing cost is estimated at 0.57 $/W with an LCOE of 18-22 US cents/kWh, materials accounting for 70% of total cost[15](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40820-025-01744-x). A Joule techno-economic model of US tandem production at 25% module efficiency and 3 GW/year gives a minimum sustainable price of $0.428/W DC (two-terminal) and $0.423/W DC (four-terminal), with baseline costs of $0.364 and $0.359/W DC falling to about $0.30/W DC at 30% efficiency[17](https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(24)00466-5). The two estimates describe different things (current small-scale cost versus modeled at-scale price), and both exceed the modeled $0.285/W DC cost of a 22%-efficient PERC silicon module; the tandem model only drops below that at 32.5% module efficiency[17](https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(24)00466-5).
- **LCOE condition.** Fraunhofer ISE analysis finds perovskite-silicon tandems need roughly 2% higher cell efficiency than single-junction technologies, assuming a 90% perovskite material price reduction, a 0.5%/year degradation rate, and a 30-year lifetime, to achieve the same LCOE[18](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/conference-paper/42nd-eupvsec-2025/Goraya_5CP2_3pdf.pdf).
## How it compares with silicon, CdTe, and CIGS
Record lab cell efficiencies: perovskite 26.9%, perovskite/silicon tandem 35.2%, monocrystalline silicon 28.1%, CIGS 23.4%, and CdTe 21.0%[5](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf). In commerce the picture differs: the weighted average efficiency of crystalline silicon modules was 22.7% in Q4-2024, commercial silicon module efficiency rose from about 17% to just under 25% over the past decade, and CdTe modules rose from 15.6% to almost 20%[5](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf). Perovskite's demonstrated practical advantage is flexibility, shown by the 33.6% flexible tandem[13](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09849-4); its disadvantages are stability and lead content, with reported lead-leaching tests exceeding RCRA limits[2](http://www.amjee.org/article/10.11648/j.ajee.20261402.14). A comparative scoring rated perovskite 4 for efficiency but 3 for stability and 2 for degradability, against CdTe at 4/4/4[2](http://www.amjee.org/article/10.11648/j.ajee.20261402.14).
## Standards, certification, and recent developments
Commercial photovoltaic modules are commonly qualified under [IEC 61215](https://www.edgepedia.org/iec-61215) (aging) and IEC 61730 (safety); the 61215 sequence includes damp heat at 85 °C/85% relative humidity for 1,000 h, thermal cycling from −40 °C to 85 °C for 200 cycles, UV irradiation of 15 kWh/m2, and mechanical load of at least 2,400 Pa[4](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf) • [17](https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(24)00466-5). There is no perovskite-specific IEC stability standard; perovskite modules follow IEC 61215 designed for silicon and thin-film technologies, ISOS protocols are used in research but are not regulatory, and IEC TC82 WG2 is developing perovskite-related standards[4](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf) • [7](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3f87/3c99cedb82d44ed71cbaa117c97a87f09391.pdf). Passing the tests can support commercial sale but does not ensure long-term reliability[17](https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(24)00466-5). Perovskite cells have passed IEC 61215:2016 under over 9,000 h of operational tracking, and several Chinese companies announced their modules passed the test[15](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40820-025-01744-x); GCL's panel passed IEC 61215 and IEC 61739 with a guarantee of 90% of nominal output after 10 years and 80% after 25 years[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf), and UtmoLight reported passing IEC testing including a 2,300-h UV bath at 1,000 W/m2 and 60 °C[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf).
**Commercial milestones since late 2023:**
- December 2023: GCL announced the first commercial gigawatt-scale perovskite manufacturing, producing 1.2 m × 2.4 m modules[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf).
- June 2024: Oxford PV achieved a certified 26.9% efficiency for a 60-cell residential-size tandem module of just over 1.6 m2, certified by Fraunhofer CalLab and surpassing the best silicon modules at about 25%; cells are made in [Brandenburg](https://www.edgepedia.org/brandenburg) an der Havel, Germany[19](https://www.oxfordpv.com/press-releases/oxford-pv-solar-sustainability-initiative). A few months later it launched tandem modules commercially in the United States[20](https://www.pv-magazine.com/2026/06/18/oxford-pv-achieves-25-6-efficiency-for-perovskite-silicon-tandem-module-based-on-shingled-design/).
- Qcells reported a 28.6% certified total-area efficiency for a full-area M10-sized (330.56 cm2) tandem cell on a standard industrial silicon wafer, verified by Fraunhofer ISE CalLab[8](https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/qcells-achieves-world-record-efficiency-for-commercially-scalable-perovskite-silicon-tandem-solar-cell-302335297.html).
- September 2024: RenShine Solar connected a 1.2 MW perovskite rooftop power station to the grid, comprising 9,300 commercial modules (1.2 m × 0.6 m, average 130 W) at 18.4% efficiency[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf).
- 2026: Tandem PV opened a 65,000-square-foot factory in [Fremont, California](https://www.edgepedia.org/fremont-california) with 40 MW/year capacity, shipping 10-20 panels a day from late January[6](https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/solar/perovskites-mass-production-tandem-fremont), and reported a 30.4% efficient 100 cm2 demonstration module (perovskite layer 21.7%, Maxeon IBC silicon cell 8.7%)[9](https://www.pv-magazine.com/2026/06/01/tandem-pv-announces-30-4-efficient-perovskite-silicon-demonstration-module/). Oxford PV reported two shingled tandem modules at 25.6% full-area efficiency (491 W rooftop, 546 W bifacial), with current products at 25% efficiency and 10-year lifetime, a 26% product planned for 2026, and a path to 27% by 2027[20](https://www.pv-magazine.com/2026/06/18/oxford-pv-achieves-25-6-efficiency-for-perovskite-silicon-tandem-module-based-on-shingled-design/).
**Degradation in products.** Tandem PV estimates about 1% per year degradation in UV-accelerated lifetime testing at 65 °C for its latest products, versus about 0.59% per year for mature silicon cells[9](https://www.pv-magazine.com/2026/06/01/tandem-pv-announces-30-4-efficient-perovskite-silicon-demonstration-module/). The Fraunhofer LCOE analysis assumes 0.5%/year degradation in its tandem scenario[18](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/conference-paper/42nd-eupvsec-2025/Goraya_5CP2_3pdf.pdf).
**Where sources disagree.** On the single-junction record, 26.1% (small area, USTC)[4](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf), 26.7% (2024, MRS Bulletin)[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf), and 26.9% (Fraunhofer)[5](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf) reflect different dates and areas rather than an error. On cost, the 0.57 $/W current-cost estimate[15](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40820-025-01744-x) and the $0.36-0.43/W modeled at-scale prices[17](https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(24)00466-5) describe different production scales. On the silicon limit, 29.5% is the silicon-specific theoretical limit[10](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2024/ee/d4ee01898b) while 33.7% is the generic single-junction Shockley-Queisser limit[3](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf); both are correct in their own scopes.
## References
1. [Perovskite Solar Cells: A Review of the Latest Advances in Materials, Fabrication Techniques, and Stability Enhancement Strategies (PMC)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10890723/)
2. [Perovskite and Cadmium Telluride in Next-generation Photovoltaic Technologies (American Journal of Energy Engineering)](http://www.amjee.org/article/10.11648/j.ajee.20261402.14)
3. [Stability and reliability of perovskite photovoltaics: Are we there yet? (MRS Bulletin, 2025)](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/s43577-025-00863-5.pdf)
4. [The issues on the commercialization of perovskite solar cells (IOP)](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf)
5. [Photovoltaics Report (Fraunhofer ISE)](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf)
6. [Are long-promised solar perovskites finally hitting mass production? (Canary Media)](https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/solar/perovskites-mass-production-tandem-fremont)
7. [Manufacturing of Perovskite Solar Cells: Materials, Processing Strategies, and Pathways to Scalable Production (Semantic Scholar PDF)](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3f87/3c99cedb82d44ed71cbaa117c97a87f09391.pdf)
8. [Qcells achieves world record efficiency for commercially scalable perovskite-silicon tandem solar cell (PR Newswire)](https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/qcells-achieves-world-record-efficiency-for-commercially-scalable-perovskite-silicon-tandem-solar-cell-302335297.html)
9. [Tandem PV announces 30.4% efficient perovskite/silicon demonstration module (pv magazine, June 2026)](https://www.pv-magazine.com/2026/06/01/tandem-pv-announces-30-4-efficient-perovskite-silicon-demonstration-module/)
10. [Stability and reliability of perovskite containing solar cells and modules (Energy & Environmental Science)](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2024/ee/d4ee01898b)
11. [Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 66), Progress in Photovoltaics (2025)](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pip.3919)
12. [All-perovskite tandem solar cells achieving >29% efficiency (Nature Materials, 2024)](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41563-024-02073-x)
13. [Flexible perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells with 33.6% efficiency (Nature, 2025)](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09849-4)
14. [Towards Long-Term Stable Perovskite Solar Cells: Degradation Mechanisms and Stabilization Techniques (PMC)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10811515/)
15. [Cost Effectivities Analysis of Perovskite Solar Cells (Nano-Micro Letters)](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40820-025-01744-x)
16. [Emerging strategies for the large-scale fabrication of perovskite solar modules (EES, RSC)](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2025/ee/d4ee05613b)
17. [Technoeconomic analysis of perovskite/silicon tandem solar modules (Joule)](https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(24)00466-5)
18. [Total Cost of Ownership, LCA and LCOE Analysis of Perovskite-Silicon Tandems vs Single Junction c-Si (Fraunhofer ISE, EU PVSEC 2025)](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/conference-paper/42nd-eupvsec-2025/Goraya_5CP2_3pdf.pdf)
19. [Oxford PV press release: world record solar module efficiency](https://www.oxfordpv.com/press-releases/oxford-pv-solar-sustainability-initiative)
20. [Oxford PV achieves 25.6% efficiency for perovskite-silicon tandem module based on shingled design (pv magazine, June 2026)](https://www.pv-magazine.com/2026/06/18/oxford-pv-achieves-25-6-efficiency-for-perovskite-silicon-tandem-module-based-on-shingled-design/)
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*Topic: Encyclopedia › Technology and the built world › Energy technology › Solar power*
*Initially written Sep 17, 2026 · Reviewed: Sep 30, 2026; Oct 15, 2026 · Edited: Sep 30, 2026; Oct 15, 2026 · Last review: Oct 15, 2026*
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License: Edgepedia Community License 1.0, https://www.edgepedia.org/edgepedia/license