# Titanium carbide

**Titanium carbide** (TiC, CAS 12070-08-5) is an extremely hard refractory ceramic compound of titanium and carbon, crystallizing in the cubic rock-salt structure and used industrially as an abrasive, a wear-resistant phase, a reinforcement in composites, and a precursor to two-dimensional MXene materials.<sup>[1](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Titanium-carbide-_TiC)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[2](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/14/11/1830)</sup> It has been described as the most common and widely used transition metal carbide.<sup>[3](https://www.tsijournals.com/articles/a-review-on-titanium-carbide-synthesising-methods-15256.html)</sup>

| Key fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Crystal structure | Cubic rock-salt (NaCl) type, with carbon occupying octahedral interstices of a cubic close-packed titanium sublattice<sup>[4](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2016/ta/c6ta00042h)</sup> |
| Melting point | About 3100 °C (NIST typical value); other sources give 3067 °C and 3140–3160 °C<sup>[5](https://srdata.nist.gov/CeramicDataPortal/Scd/Z00093)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[1](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Titanium-carbide-_TiC)</sup> |
| Density | 4.93–4.94 g/cm³ at room temperature<sup>[5](https://srdata.nist.gov/CeramicDataPortal/Scd/Z00093)</sup> |
| Hardness | About 29 GPa (NIST typical); 2800 kg/mm² and HV 3200 are also reported<sup>[5](https://srdata.nist.gov/CeramicDataPortal/Scd/Z00093)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[6](https://dalspaceb.library.dal.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/60b65cb7-0dcc-4167-9018-3309ba95f02f/content)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[7](https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/isijinternational/60/1/60_ISIJINT-2019-151/_html/-char/en)</sup> |
| Elastic modulus | 451 GPa (NIST typical); 494 GPa for dense material in another compilation<sup>[5](https://srdata.nist.gov/CeramicDataPortal/Scd/Z00093)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[8](https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2%3A991217/FULLTEXT01.pdf)</sup> |
| Main production route | Carbothermal reduction of TiO₂ with carbon at 1700–2100 °C for 10–20 h<sup>[9](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/carbothermal-reduction)</sup> |
| Non-stoichiometry | TiC₁₋ₓ accommodates carbon-site vacancies up to 50%<sup>[10](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/getauthorversionpdf/c6ta00042h)</sup> |

## Structure and bonding

Titanium carbide adopts the B1 rock-salt structure: a cubic close-packed titanium sublattice with carbon atoms in the octahedral interstices. Titanium monoxide has the same framework, and the two end compounds form a complete solid solution TiO₁₋ₓCₓ; the oxide carries extensive defects on both sublattices while stoichiometric TiC is fully occupied and can be regarded as an interstitial metal.<sup>[4](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2016/ta/c6ta00042h)</sup> Real crystals are rarely perfectly stoichiometric: the non-stoichiometric phase TiCₓ (or TiC₁₋ₓ) accommodates vacancies on the carbon site up to 50%, and the Ti–C phase diagram includes ordered vacancy compounds.<sup>[10](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/getauthorversionpdf/c6ta00042h)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[11](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2002/rc/rc020439)</sup>

The bonding is a mixture of metallic, covalent, and ionic character. First-principles calculations show the ground-state NaCl structure stabilized by a combination of covalent and metallic bonding, and the electronic structure differs between crystal faces: the {001} surface shows more covalent character while the {111} faces show more electron localization.<sup>[12](https://journals.aps.org/prb/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevB.39.4945)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[13](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2018/cp/c7cp06336a)</sup> This mixed bonding underlies the combination of ceramic hardness with metallic electrical and thermal conductivity.<sup>[14](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12242840/)</sup>

## Synthesis

**Carbothermal reduction** is the dominant commercial route. High-purity titanium dioxide is blended with carbon (especially carbon black) and heated between 1700 and 2100 °C, typically for 10–20 hours, in vacuum or argon.<sup>[9](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/carbothermal-reduction)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[15](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/titanium-carbide)</sup> The overall reaction is:

\[ \mathrm{TiO_2 + 3C \rightarrow TiC + 2CO} \]

This equation is a simplification: reduction proceeds through the mixed-valence titanium oxides in the sequence TiO₂ → Ti₃O₅ → Ti₂O₃ → TiO → TiC, and the outcome depends strongly on atmosphere, pressure, and temperature.<sup>[15](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/titanium-carbide)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[16](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S092583880401093X)</sup> [Experiments](https://www.edgepedia.org/experiments) on anatase and rutile found that TiC formed from anatase was apparently stoichiometric while that from rutile was clearly sub-stoichiometric.<sup>[16](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S092583880401093X)</sup> Lower-temperature laboratory work has produced spherical TiC from rutile and amorphous carbon at 1350 °C with 1-hour holding in argon, and carbothermal reduction of the ore ilmenite (FeTiO₃) has been studied as a low-cost industrial route.<sup>[3](https://www.tsijournals.com/articles/a-review-on-titanium-carbide-synthesising-methods-15256.html)</sup>

**Other routes** cover the main families of TiC synthesis: combustion reactions, sol–gel processing, gas-phase reactions, and mechanical alloying.<sup>[2](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/14/11/1830)</sup> In the gas-phase route, titanium tetrachloride reacts with hydrogen and methane, analogous to the process used for tungsten carbide.<sup>[15](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/titanium-carbide)</sup> Large-scale particles can be made by blending oxides or ores with carbon in a Menstruum process.<sup>[15](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/titanium-carbide)</sup> Nanostructured TiC is obtained by optimizing thermal reduction, using more reactive titanium-containing precursors, gas-phase reaction, or mechanical alloying.<sup>[2](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/14/11/1830)</sup>

## Properties

TiC is a light, extremely hard refractory ceramic. NIST's structural ceramics database lists typical room-temperature values of 4.94 g/cm³ density, 451 GPa elastic modulus, 29 GPa hardness, 3100 °C melting point, and a thermal expansion of 7.7 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹.<sup>[5](https://srdata.nist.gov/CeramicDataPortal/Scd/Z00093)</sup> PubChem reports a boiling point of 4820 °C and notes the compound is a gray crystalline powder insoluble in water.<sup>[1](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Titanium-carbide-_TiC)</sup> Reported hardness depends on the measurement: 2800 kg/mm² in one materials comparison, HV 3200 in a steel-reinforcement study, and 2470 Knoop for dense material in a property compilation.<sup>[6](https://dalspaceb.library.dal.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/60b65cb7-0dcc-4167-9018-3309ba95f02f/content)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[7](https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/isijinternational/60/1/60_ISIJINT-2019-151/_html/-char/en)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[8](https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2%3A991217/FULLTEXT01.pdf)</sup>

Beyond hardness, the material combines high melting point, good thermal and electrical conductivity, a low thermal expansion coefficient, and strong oxidation and corrosion resistance.<sup>[14](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12242840/)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[17](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12842061/)</sup> Semi-oxidized TiC and TiCN can form N- or C-doped TiO₂ with photocatalytic activity under visible light.<sup>[14](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12242840/)</sup>

## Applications

**Cutting tools and wear parts** are the classic uses. TiC powder is used for cutting tools, grinding wheels, coated cutting tips, and coated steel press tools.<sup>[16](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S092583880401093X)</sup> In cermets, ceramic-metal composites, TiC-based hard particles are bonded with cobalt or nickel; the first cermets, containing titanium carbide and molybdenum carbide with a nickel binder, were manufactured in Germany in 1929.<sup>[18](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8620695/)</sup> Modern cermet cutting tools use hard particles composed mainly of titanium-based compounds such as TiN, TiCN, and TiC instead of the tungsten carbides common in cemented carbides.<sup>[19](https://www.iscar.hr/Catalogs/Publication/english_1/Cutting_tools_user_guide/Cutting_tools_user_guide.pdf)</sup> Adding TiC, TaC, or NbC to WC-Co grades improves their corrosion resistance.<sup>[18](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8620695/)</sup>

**Steel reinforcement** exploits TiC as an inexpensive wear-resistant phase. In low-alloy martensitic steels, TiC precipitates form during solidification and heat treatment; in one study, raising the Ti content from 0 to 0.7 wt% increased relative abrasive wear resistance by about 70% at unchanged bulk hardness, because micron-sized TiC particles shield the matrix from abrasive grains and blunt their cutting corners.<sup>[7](https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/isijinternational/60/1/60_ISIJINT-2019-151/_html/-char/en)</sup>

**Coatings and composites** extend these properties to surfaces. TiC hard coatings deposited by plasma-assisted CVD on tool steel at 450 °C reach about 3100 VHN with 2–3 micrometre thickness.<sup>[20](https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/AD7FB7)</sup> TiC is also a reinforcement in metal-matrix composites for additive manufacturing and in [ultra-high-temperature ceramics](https://www.edgepedia.org/ultra-high-temperature-ceramics), and TiC coatings on titanium implants and prostheses provide hardness, controlled roughness, and biocompatibility that supports osseointegration.<sup>[21](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12942305/)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[22](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7353133/)</sup>

**MXene chemistry** is a newer application area. Titanium carbide layers appear in the layered MAX phase Ti₃AlC₂, first synthesized in 1994 by sintering TiAl, Al₄C₃, and carbon powders at 1500 °C for 20 hours under argon; etching the aluminum layers from this phase yields the two-dimensional carbide MXene Ti₃C₂Tₓ, the most widely studied MXene.<sup>[23](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221478532035197X)</sup><sup> • </sup><sup>[24](https://arxiv.org/abs/2007.11862)</sup> TiC itself also serves as an electrocatalysis material.<sup>[2](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/14/11/1830)</sup>

## Safety

TiC dust is the principal occupational hazard. The compound is a respiratory tract irritant, and repeated or prolonged exposure to dust may affect the lungs; occupational exposure to dust mixtures containing titanium carbide has resulted in pneumoconiosis, and rat studies report focal lung fibrosis.<sup>[1](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Titanium-carbide-_TiC)</sup> Finely dispersed particles can form explosive mixtures in air, and evaporation at 20 °C is negligible although a harmful airborne concentration can be reached quickly when the powder is dispersed.<sup>[1](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Titanium-carbide-_TiC)</sup> EPA protective-action criteria are 19 mg/m³ (PAC-1), 210 mg/m³ (PAC-2), and 1200 mg/m³ (PAC-3).<sup>[1](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Titanium-carbide-_TiC)</sup> In commercial use TiC is generally combined with other compounds such as tungsten carbide and cobalt.<sup>[1](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Titanium-carbide-_TiC)</sup>

## References

1. [Titanium carbide (TiC), PubChem, National Library of Medicine](https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Titanium-carbide-_TiC)
2. [A Review of Processes for Synthesis of Nanostructured TiC, Processes (MDPI), 2026](https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/14/11/1830)
3. [A Review on Titanium Carbide Synthesising Methods, Materials Science: An Indian Journal](https://www.tsijournals.com/articles/a-review-on-titanium-carbide-synthesising-methods-15256.html)
4. [Miller et al. (2016). Titanium oxycarbide solid solution TiO₁₋ₓCₓ. Journal of Materials Chemistry A](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2016/ta/c6ta00042h)
5. [NIST Structural Ceramics Database, citation Z00093 (TiC)](https://srdata.nist.gov/CeramicDataPortal/Scd/Z00093)
6. [Holmes, M. (2012). MASc thesis, Dalhousie University](https://dalspaceb.library.dal.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/60b65cb7-0dcc-4167-9018-3309ba95f02f/content)
7. [Liu et al. (2020). Precipitation Process of TiC in Low Alloy Martensitic Steel. ISIJ International](https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/isijinternational/60/1/60_ISIJINT-2019-151/_html/-char/en)
8. [Doctoral thesis with TiC property table, DiVA portal](https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2%3A991217/FULLTEXT01.pdf)
9. [Carbothermal Reduction, ScienceDirect Topics](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/carbothermal-reduction)
10. [Non-stoichiometric titanium carbides TiC₁₋ₓ, RSC author version](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/getauthorversionpdf/c6ta00042h)
11. [Phase equilibria, phases and compounds in the Ti–C system, Russian Chemical Reviews](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2002/rc/rc020439)
12. [Price & Cooper (1989). Total energies and bonding in Ti–C systems. Physical Review B](https://journals.aps.org/prb/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevB.39.4945)
13. [Quesne et al. (2018). Bulk and surface properties of metal carbides. PCCP](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2018/cp/c7cp06336a)
14. [Oxidation behavior of TiC and TiCN and their photocatalytic activity, PMC](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12242840/)
15. [Titanium Carbide, ScienceDirect Topics overview](https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/titanium-carbide)
16. [Carbothermic reduction of anatase and rutile, Journal of Alloys and Compounds](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S092583880401093X)
17. [Silicon Nitride Bioceramics with TiC Additives, PMC](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12842061/)
18. [Ti(C,N) and WC-Based Cermets: A Review, PMC](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8620695/)
19. [Iscar cutting tools user guide](https://www.iscar.hr/Catalogs/Publication/english_1/Cutting_tools_user_guide/Cutting_tools_user_guide.pdf)
20. [State-of-the-Art titanium carbide hard coatings, Engineering Research Express (IOP)](https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/AD7FB7)
21. [Formation of Titanium Carbide MMC for Additive Manufacturing, PMC](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12942305/)
22. [Nanostructured thin film of TiC and titanium oxides on osseointegration, PMC](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7353133/)
23. [Synthesis of MXene Ti₃C₂ by selective etching of MAX-phase Ti₃AlC₂, Materials Today: Proceedings](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221478532035197X)
24. [One MAX phase, different MXenes: etching conditions and Ti₃C₂Tₓ surface chemistry, arXiv](https://arxiv.org/abs/2007.11862)

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*Topic: Encyclopedia › Physical world and mathematics › Chemistry › Elements and inorganic substances › Halides, nitrides, and carbides › Carbides and cemented carbide materials › Group 4–6 refractory metal carbides*

*Initially written Sep 17, 2026 · Reviewed: Sep 19, 2026; Oct 15, 2026 · Edited: Sep 19, 2026; Oct 11, 2026; Oct 15, 2026; Oct 25, 2026 · Last review: Oct 15, 2026*

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