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Insulin aspart
Insulin aspart (NovoRapid, NovoLog, Fiasp) is a rapid-acting insulin analog for mealtime diabetes therapy, made by replacing proline B28 with aspartic acid; second FDA-approved rapid-acting analog, with biosimilars Merilog and Garzulys.
Insulin autoimmune syndrome
Insulin autoimmune syndrome (IAS, Hirata disease) is a rare autoimmune cause of hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia from insulin autoantibodies in insulin-naive people, linked to HLA-DRB1*0406, sulfhydryl drugs, and alpha-lipoic acid.
Insulin degludec
Insulin degludec (Tresiba, IDeg) is Novo Nordisk's ultra-long-acting basal insulin analog, EU-approved 2013 and FDA-approved 2015, with >42 h action, multihexamer depot release, glargine-equivalent HbA1c control, and lower nocturnal hypoglycemia.
Insulin detemir
Insulin detemir (Levemir, Novo Nordisk) is a long-acting basal insulin analogue, FDA approved 2005, acylated with a C14 myristic fatty acid for albumin binding, dosed once or twice daily for type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
Insulin glargine
Insulin glargine (Lantus, Toujeo; biosimilars Semglee, Rezvoglar, Langlara) is a once-daily long-acting basal insulin analog for type 1 and type 2 diabetes, first FDA-approved in April 2000.
Insulin glulisine
Insulin glulisine (Apidra, Sanofi) is a rapid-acting insulin analogue, 3B Lys-29B Glu-human insulin made in E. coli, FDA-approved April 16, 2004 for subcutaneous, pump, and intravenous use in diabetes.
Insulin Infusion Systems
Insulin infusion systems (insulin pumps, CSII) are portable or implantable devices delivering insulin continuously, open-loop or closed-loop; first commercial pump 1978; OpT2mise and REPOSE trial evidence; infusion set failure risks DKA.
Insulin lispro
Insulin lispro, marketed by Eli Lilly as Humalog, is a rapid-acting insulin analog first approved in the United States in 1996, absorbed faster than regular human insulin.
Insulin peglispro
Insulin peglispro (BIL, LY2605541) was Eli Lilly's investigational PEGylated basal insulin lispro with hepato-preferential action, showing superior HbA1c reduction and less nocturnal hypoglycemia than glargine in the IMAGINE trials, but development was discontinued in December 2015 over liver fat changes.
Insulin processing
Insulin processing: the β-cell pathway converting preproinsulin to mature insulin, via ER signal peptide cleavage, disulfide folding, COPII transport, and PC1/3, PC2, and CPE cleavage in secretory granules.
Insulin pump
Insulin pump: wearable device for continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) via a catheter, delivering basal and bolus insulin. First wearable pump 1963 (Kadish); adverse events affect 40-68% of users; modern hybrid closed-loop systems pair pumps with CGMs.
Insulin receptor
Insulin receptor (INSR): cell-surface receptor tyrosine kinase, a disulfide-linked (αβ)2 dimer binding insulin; isoforms IR-A and IR-B, IGF1R hybrids, PI3K/Akt signaling, roles in diabetes and cancer.
Insulin receptor substrate
Insulin receptor substrate (IRS) proteins, chiefly IRS1 and IRS2, are cytoplasmic adaptor proteins docking on the activated insulin and IGF-1 receptors to drive PI3K-AKT signaling, glucose metabolism, and insulin resistance.
Insulin resistance
Insulin resistance: reduced body response to normal insulin levels, a physiological state distinct from prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. Covers clamp and HOMA-IR measurement, mechanisms (IRS-1, GLUT4), prevalence (~26.5% globally), and treatments from DPP lifestyle change to thiazolidinediones and GLP-1 agents.
Insulin Secretion
Insulin secretion is glucose-regulated release of insulin from pancreatic beta cells via KATP-dependent triggering and KATP-independent amplifying pathways, producing biphasic secretion modulated by incretins and paracrine signals.
Insulin shock therapy
Insulin shock therapy, or insulin coma therapy, was a psychiatric treatment introduced by Manfred Sakel in Vienna in 1933, inducing hypoglycaemic comas with large insulin doses to treat schizophrenia; abandoned after 1950s randomized trials showed it ineffective.
Insulin titration
Insulin titration is the stepwise adjustment of insulin doses against measured blood glucose values until fasting glucose or HbA1c targets are reached without hypoglycemia, applying to basal, prandial, and premixed regimens in diabetes.
Insulin tolerance test
The insulin tolerance test (ITT) is a diagnostic procedure in which intravenous insulin induces hypoglycemia, and growth hormone and cortisol responses are measured to assess pituitary function.
Insulin-induced protein family
Insulin-induced protein (INSIG) family: ER membrane sterol sensors Insig-1 (277 aa) and Insig-2 (225 aa) that retain SREBP-Scap in the ER and trigger HMG-CoA reductase degradation, regulating cholesterol synthesis.
Insulin-like
Insulin-like describes a family of peptide hormones and growth factors sharing a conserved structure of three disulfide bridges, including insulin, the IGFs, relaxins, and insulin-like peptides.
Insulin-like growth factor 1
Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1, IGF-I, somatomedin C) is a liver-secreted peptide hormone mediating growth hormone's growth effects; discovered 1957 as sulphation factor, renamed 1976, with insulin-like, mitogenic, and age-dependent disease associations.
Insulin-like growth factor binding protein 2
IGFBP2, insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 2, is one of six proteins that carry and regulate IGF-I and IGF-II in blood; high tumor expression predicts poor prognosis.
Insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3
IGFBP-3 (insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3, gene IGFBP3) is the most abundant human IGF carrier, forming the 150 kDa IGF/IGFBP-3/ALS ternary complex, with IGF-independent antiproliferative actions via TMEM219 and RXR-alpha.
Insulin-like growth factor binding protein 5
IGFBP-5 (IGFBP5), also IGFBP-5, is the most conserved of the six insulin-like growth factor binding proteins; it binds IGF-1/IGF-2, forms IGF-ALS ternary complexes, is the major IGF-binding protein in bone, and has IGF-independent actions.
Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 4
IGFBP-4 (insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 4, gene IGFBP4) is a 258-amino-acid secreted human protein binding IGF-I and IGF-II, inhibiting IGF action, cleaved IGF-dependently by PAPP-A at Met135-Lys136, and independently inhibiting canonical Wnt signaling in cardiogenesis.
Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 6
IGFBP-6 (IGFBP6, insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 6) is one of six high-affinity IGF-binding proteins, uniquely preferring IGF-II 20-100-fold over IGF-I; it inhibits IGF-II actions, has IGF-independent effects, and restrains endothelial inflammation and atherosclerosis.
Insulin-resistance syndromes
Insulin-resistance syndromes are rare syndromes of severe insulin resistance, from receptor or signaling defects, spanning Donohue and Rabson-Mendenhall syndromes, type A, and autoimmune type B disease.
Insulin, neutral
Insulin, neutral (neutral regular or soluble insulin) is short-acting insulin formulated as a clear solution at neutral pH, unlike early acidic preparations. Known as regular insulin (Humulin R, Novolin R, Insuman Rapid), it acts in 30-60 minutes, peaks at 2-4 hours, and lasts 6-8 hours.
Insulinoma
Insulinoma, a rare insulin-secreting pancreatic beta-cell neuroendocrine tumor (4 per million yearly), causes fasting hypoglycemia; diagnosed by Whipple triad and supervised fast, mostly benign and cured surgically.
Insult (offence against honour)
Insult (offence against honour), or injure/Beleidigung, is a legal offence punishing speech intended to offend a person's honour or dignity, distinct from defamation because no specific fact is asserted and truth is no defence; over 160 countries retain related criminal laws.