All articles starting with H
20,046 articles
History of calendars
The history of calendars is the record of how cultures reconciled the day, lunar month, and solar year, from Egypt's 365-day calendar to the Gregorian reform of 1582.
History of California
History of California: Indigenous civilization, Spanish missions from 1769, Mexican rule 1821–1848, Gold Rush, statehood September 9, 1850 as the 31st free state, Native dispossession, and modern land return.
History of Cambodia
The history of Cambodia records state formation in the Mekong basin from the kingdom of Funan through the Angkorian Empire, the French protectorate, and the Khmer Rouge era.
History of Canada
History of Canada: thousands of years of Indigenous societies, French and British colonial rule, Confederation in 1867, western expansion, residential schools, and modern reconciliation.
History of cancer
The history of cancer spans from its earliest written description in ancient Egypt around 3000 BCE to the modern understanding of cancer as a disease of cells and genes.
History of cannabis
History of cannabis (Cannabis sativa): Eurasian domestication for fiber, food, and medicine; earliest psychoactive use at Jirzankal Cemetery; O'Shaughnessy's 19th-century medical promotion; 1925 Geneva control, 1937 US Marijuana Tax Act, and modern legalization.
History of capitalism
The history of capitalism studies how an economic system of markets, accumulated capital, and wage labor emerged and spread, with origins debated from around 1150 to the 16th century.
History of cartography
History of cartography: mapmaking from Babylonian clay tablets and Ptolemy's Geographia through Cassini triangulation, aerial photogrammetry, satellite remote sensing, GPS, GIS, OpenStreetMap, and debates over maps as instruments of power.
History of Catalonia
History of Catalonia: the northeastern Spanish territory shaped as the Carolingian Marca Hispanica, united with Aragon in 1137, stripped of institutions by the 1716 Nueva Planta decree, and rebuilt through industrialization, catalanism, and the restored Generalitat.
History of cataract surgery
History of cataract surgery: from ancient couching (Sushruta Samhita) through Jacques Daviel's 1747/1750 planned extraction, Sharp's 1753 ICCE, Kelman's 1967 phacoemulsification, IOLs, MSICS, and femtosecond laser surgery.
History of causal inference
The history of causal inference traces three traditions that developed separately, Neyman's 1923 potential outcomes, econometrics, and Pearl's 1990s graphical models, before converging into complementary frameworks.
History of central banking in the United States
The history of central banking in the United States covers two early national banks that lost their charters and the Federal Reserve System created in 1913.
History of cheese
History of cheese: Neolithic-origin fermented milk food, earliest evidence in sixth-millennium-BC pottery strainers, oldest intact kefir cheese from Xiaohe, China; shaped by monasteries, starter cultures, and industrial dairies.
History of chemistry
The history of chemistry traces how alchemy became quantitative experimental science in the 17th and 18th centuries, then a discipline with atomic theory and the periodic table.
History of chess
History of chess: the game's evolution from sixth-century Indian chaturanga through Persian shatranj and medieval Europe to modern rules, plus computer chess from Kaissa (1974) to Deep Blue and Stockfish.
History of Chicago
History of Chicago: the Lake Michigan city platted 1830, incorporated 1833, that became America's Second City through railroads, the 1871 fire and skyscraper rebuilding, the Great Migration, and public housing transformation.
History of Chile
History of Chile: from 10,000+ years of settlement and the contested Monte Verde site, through conquest, independence (1810-1818), the 1833 and 1925 constitutions, the 1891 civil war, the Allende government and 1973 Pinochet coup, to democracy and failed 2022-2023 constitutional rewrites.
History of China
History of China: the record of Chinese civilization from Neolithic communities through dynasties (Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, Tang, Song, Ming, Qing) to 1912; first emperor Qin Shi Huang (221 BC), Great Wall, civil service exams, and modern historiography.
History of Chinese Americans
History of Chinese Americans: Chinese migration and life in the United States from the Gold Rush and transcontinental railroad through the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, Wong Kim Ark, 1943 repeal, and post-1965 growth.
History of Chinese cuisine
History of Chinese cuisine (中国饮食文化史): development of Chinese food from prehistoric staple systems through Silk Road and American crop introductions, the Eight Cuisines, imperial court dining, modern mobility-driven diffusion, and overseas spread.
History of chocolate
History of chocolate: cacao use from 5,300-year-old Ecuador and Olmec/Maya/Aztec Mesoamerica, its 16th-century arrival in Spain, European fashion, and 19th-century industrial solid chocolate.
History of Christian democracy
The history of Christian democracy runs from Catholic social teaching and confessional parties to postwar dominance in Western Europe, where it built welfare states and drove European integration before declining since the 1970s.
History of Christianity
The history of Christianity traces the religion from a first-century Jewish sect to roughly 2.3 billion adherents, through imperial adoption, the Reformation, and a shift to the Global South.
History of Christianity and homosexuality
History of Christian attitudes toward homosexuality: patristic condemnation, Boswell's 1980 tolerance thesis and its critics, medieval law and adelphopoiesis, and modern denominational positions from Catholic doctrine to the 2024 United Methodist reversal.
History of cinema of India
History of Indian cinema: begins with the 1896 Lumière screening in Bombay, Phalke's Raja Harishchandra (1913), Alam Ara (1931), the studio era, parallel and regional cinemas, and today's roughly 2,000-film multilingual industry.
History of circumcision
History of circumcision: the foreskin-removal rite from ancient Egyptian puberty and marriage rituals, the Jewish covenant of Genesis 17, early Christian abandonment, spread with Islam, Victorian medicalization for masturbation prevention, and modern HIV-prevention programs.
History of civil engineering education
The history of civil engineering education covers the shift from apprenticeship and military schools to universities, with the first civil engineering degree awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.
History of climate change science
The history of climate change science traces how researchers moved from nineteenth-century ice age puzzles and heat-trapping gases to modern assessments of human-caused global warming.
History of clothing and textiles
History of clothing and textiles: from prehistoric weaving at least 23,000 years ago through ancient cotton, linen, silk, and dye traditions, industrial mechanization, synthetic fibers, and today's global textile industry employing over 90 million people.
History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent
History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent: from Indus Valley cotton and draped dhoti and sari to Mughal stitched courtly dress, colonial trade, Gandhi's khadi protest, and the modern embellished Indian fashion industry.