Earth sciences

Geological formation

A geological formation, also called a stratigraphic formation, is the primary formal unit of lithostratigraphy: a rock body defined by lithology and mappable, ranking below group and above member.

Geological heritage, or geoheritage, is the set of rocks, minerals, fossils, soils, landforms, and landscapes with scientific, educational, cultural, or aesthetic value, conserved through geoconservation at sites called geosites.

Geological Magazine

Geological Magazine is a British peer-reviewed geology journal founded in 1864 by Henry Woodward and published by Cambridge University Press, one of the oldest continuously published Earth science periodicals.

Geological map

A geological map, also called a geologic map, shows where rock units, surficial deposits, and structures such as faults and folds lie at or beneath the surface.

Oct 21, 2026

Geological Phenomena

Geological phenomena are structures, properties, and processes involving Earth's inanimate matter (MeSH D055593): earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, tsunamis, erosion, and plate tectonics, studied for hazard forecasting.

Geological Society of America

The Geological Society of America, founded in 1888 and headquartered in Boulder, Colorado, supports geoscientists in more than 100 countries through meetings, publications, and grants.

Geological Society of London

The Geological Society of London, founded in 1807, is the world's oldest geological society and the UK's professional body for geoscience, based at Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Geological survey

A geological survey is a systematic inventory of a territory's rocks, sediments, water, and mineral resources, carried out by a public organization such as the USGS.

Geological Survey of Canada

The Geological Survey of Canada is Canada's national geoscience organization, founded in 1842 under its first director William Logan and now part of Natural Resources Canada.

Geological Survey of India

The Geological Survey of India, founded in 1851 to find coal for the Railways, is the national earth-science agency under the Ministry of Mines, headquartered in Kolkata.

Geological Survey of Ireland

The Geological Survey of Ireland (GSI), founded in 1845, is Ireland's national earth science center, providing free maps and data on groundwater, geohazards, and the seabed.

Geology

Geology, also known as geoscience or Earth science, is the study of the Earth's composition, structure, processes, and history since its origin, read from a rock record spanning roughly 4,500 million years.

Geology of India

The geology of India spans Archean cratons over 3 billion years old, the Deccan Traps flood basalts, and the Himalaya built by India's collision with Eurasia.

Oct 22, 2026

Geology of Pluto

The geology of Pluto is the study of the dwarf planet's landforms, revealed by NASA's New Horizons flyby in 2015: nitrogen glaciers, methane mountains, and tectonics.

Geology of the Moon

The geology of the Moon, also known as lunar geology, is the study of the Moon's layered interior, highlands, maria, and impact craters, which preserve early solar-system history.

Geomagnetic reversal

A geomagnetic reversal, also called a magnetic pole reversal, is a change of Earth's magnetic field to the opposite polarity; the last occurred about 780,000 years ago.

Geomagnetic secular variation

Geomagnetic secular variation is the slow change in Earth's core-generated main magnetic field over years to centuries, at rates up to about 200 nanotesla per year.

Geomagnetically induced current

A geomagnetically induced current (GIC) is an electric current driven through long conductors such as power lines by geomagnetic storms; it caused the 1989 Québec blackout.

GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel

GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel (GEOMAR Helmholtz-Zentrum für Ozeanforschung Kiel) is a German marine research institute in Kiel studying the ocean from seafloor to atmosphere.

Geomorphological mapping

Geomorphological mapping is a cartographic method that divides terrain into units defined by landform shape, formative process, surface material, and age, used in hazard assessment and land planning.

Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the study of Earth's landforms and the processes that shaped them, from continents and river basins to beaches and glaciers, now also applied to Mars and Titan.

Geophysical imaging

Geophysical imaging is a family of earth-science methods that reconstructs models of subsurface structures and properties such as seismic velocity, resistivity, and density from field measurements.

Geophysical survey

A geophysical survey maps buried features and geological structure by remotely measuring physical properties of the subsurface, with magnetometry, resistivity tomography, and ground-penetrating radar the most used techniques.

Geophysics

Geophysics, also called Earth physics, is the natural science applying physics to Earth's structure and dynamics, using gravity, magnetic, electrical, and seismic measurements to infer subsurface properties.

Geopotential height

Geopotential height is an altitude measure used in meteorology that expresses height by potential energy against gravity rather than geometric distance, differing slightly from true height.

Geopotential model

A geopotential model is a mathematical representation of Earth's gravitational potential, delivered as spherical harmonic coefficients from which geoid undulations, gravity anomalies, and satellite orbits are computed.

Georeferencing

Georeferencing is the process of assigning real-world Earth coordinates to spatial data, such as a scanned map or aerial photograph, so it can be overlaid and analyzed in a GIS.

George Everest

Sir George Everest (1790–1866) was a Welsh military engineer who completed the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India; Mount Everest was named in his honor in 1865.

GEOS-Chem

GEOS-Chem is a global 3-D model of atmospheric chemistry that simulates atmospheric composition from local to global scales using NASA GEOS meteorological data, widely used in air quality and climate research.