All articles starting with H
20,046 articles
History of penicillin
The history of penicillin runs from Alexander Fleming's 1928 discovery that a Penicillium mold killed bacteria, through Oxford's first clinical trials in 1941, to industrial production by 1945.
History of Pennsylvania
History of Pennsylvania: commonwealth founded 1681 by William Penn, also called the Keystone State. Great Law of 1682 established religious liberty; Philadelphia hosted the Declaration of Independence; iron, coal, and oil industries defined its industrial era.
History of perpetual motion machines
The history of perpetual motion machines covers thirteen centuries of proposed self-running devices, from Lalla's 748 mercury wheel through Bessler's 1721 wheel to the second law of thermodynamics, which proves them impossible.
History of personal computers
The history of personal computers, also called the microcomputer revolution, traces computing's move into homes and offices, starting with the 1975 Altair 8800 and the 1977 Apple II.
History of Peru
History of Peru: the country's record from the first hunter-gatherers (~20,000 years ago), Caral, Chavín, Moche, Nasca, Wari, Chimú, and the Inca Empire through Spanish conquest (1532), the Viceroyalty, independence (1821), the Aristocratic Republic, and the 1980–2000 internal armed conflict.
History of philosophy
History of philosophy: the discipline of writing accounts of philosophy's past, also called historiography of philosophy. Covers ancient models like Diogenes Laertius, presentist versus contextualist approaches, Eurocentrism critiques, and global histories in 26 languages.
History of photography
History of photography: the development of durable light-made images from Niépce's 1826 heliograph through daguerreotype (1839), Talbot's calotype, wet collodion, gelatin dry plates, Eastman's 1888 Kodak, autochrome color, and digital sensors.
History of physics
The history of physics traces the study of matter, motion, energy, and force from ancient astronomy through the Scientific Revolution to relativity and quantum theory.
History of physics since the 1970s
The history of physics since the 1970s covers the Standard Model's confirmation through the 2012 Higgs discovery, the rise of precision cosmology, and LIGO's first gravitational-wave detection.
History of pilot licensing and certification
The history of pilot licensing and certification traces how state-issued pilot credentials evolved from aero-club certificates in 1909 to international standards under ICAO Annex 1.
History of pizza
The history of pizza follows the dish from 18th-century Naples, where it was street food for the urban poor, to its global spread through Italian emigration and America.
History of plasticity theory
The history of plasticity theory begins with Henri Tresca's 1864 yield criterion, continues through Hencky's 1924 deformation theory and the Prandtl–Reuss equations, and was consolidated in the 1940s.
History of Poland
History of Poland: survey of the Polish state from Mieszko I's 966 baptism and the 1025 Piast crown through the 1569 Union of Lublin, the 1772–1795 partitions, the 1918 Second Republic, Nazi-Soviet occupation, communist rule, and the 1989 Solidarity transition to the Third Republic.
History of Poland (1945–1989)
History of Poland (1945–1989), the Polish People's Republic (PRL): Soviet-subordinate communist rule from 1944, Stalinism to 1956, Gomułka and Gierek eras, Solidarity 1980, martial law 1981, and the 1989 Round Table ending communism.
History of polio
History of polio: from ancient descriptions and 19th-century epidemics to Salk's 1955 IPV, Sabin's oral vaccine, the 1955 Cutter Incident, and the GPEI's post-1988 campaign that cut cases over 99%, leaving wild polio only in Pakistan and Afghanistan.
History of political science
History of political science: from Plato and Aristotle's Greek political philosophy through Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Locke, to the 1903 founding of APSA, the behavioral revolution, and new institutionalism.
History of Pomerania
History of Pomerania (Pomorze, Pommern), the Baltic region on both sides of the lower Oder: Slavic duchy under Polish overlordship, Griffin dynasty to 1637, Swedish-Brandenburg partition of 1648, Prussian rule from 1815, and the 1945 Oder-Neisse division with German expulsion and Polish resettlement.
History of Portugal
Portugal is a Western Iberian state that emerged as an independent kingdom in the twelfth century, built the first European maritime empire, and joined the European Community in 1986.
History of printing
The history of printing traces reproduction of text and images from Chinese woodblocks around 600 CE and Bi Sheng's movable type to Gutenberg's press of about 1450 and modern digital printing.
History of programming languages
The history of programming languages traces formal notations for instructing computers, from Zuse's 1945 Plankalkül and Grace Hopper's 1952 A-0 compiler through FORTRAN, COBOL, C, and today's paradigms.
History of prostitution
History of prostitution (sex work): commercial sex from antiquity, Roman tolerance, medieval municipal brothels, 19th-century regulationism and Josephine Butler's repeal campaign, abolitionism, the 1980 'sex work' coinage, and modern decriminalization and HIV policy.
History of Protestantism
The history of Protestantism runs from Martin Luther's 1517 Ninety-Five Theses at Wittenberg through the Reformation, religious wars, and settlements to a faith now centered in the Global South.
History of psychiatry
History of psychiatry: from ancient accounts of madness through asylums, Pinel and Tuke's moral treatment, the DSM's growth from 128 to 541 categories, deinstitutionalization, and the 1990 journal History of Psychiatry.
History of psychology
History of psychology: how the study of mind became an experimental science through Wundt's introspection, Fechner's psychophysics, behaviorism, Fisher's statistics, and recent feminist, decolonial, and historical turns.
History of Puerto Rico
History of Puerto Rico: island called Borinquén by the Taíno, Spanish colony from 1493, U.S. territory since 1898, Commonwealth since 1952, with Operation Bootstrap industrialization and an unresolved status debate.
History of Punjab
History of Punjab, the land of five rivers (Panj-Ab, Sapt Sindhu) spanning eastern Pakistan and northern India: Indus Valley roots, Vedic and Mughal eras, the Sikh Empire of Ranjit Singh, British annexation in 1849, and the violent 1947 partition that split the region between India and Pakistan.
History of Python
The history of Python covers the programming language Guido van Rossum began as a hobby project at CWI in Amsterdam in December 1989, first released in 1991.
History of Qatar
History of Qatar: the Al Thani-ruled Gulf peninsula, a British protectorate from the 1916 treaty until independence on 3 September 1971, transformed from pearling to oil and the North Field gas discovery.
History of quantum field theory
The history of quantum field theory (QFT) traces its development from Dirac's 1927 quantization of the electromagnetic field through renormalization to the Standard Model of particle physics.
History of quantum machine models
The history of quantum machine models traces abstract quantum devices from Paul Benioff's 1980 Hamiltonian model through Richard Feynman's 1982 proposal to David Deutsch's 1985 quantum Turing machine.